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THE METALLIC ALLOYS 



THE 

METALLIC ALLOYS. 

A PRACTICAL GUIDE 



MANUFACTURE OF ALL KINDS OF ALLOYS, AMALGAMS, AND SOLDERS, 
USED BY METAL-WORKERS; 

TOGETHER WITH 

THEIR CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND THEIR 
APPLICATION IN THE ARTS AND THE INDUSTRIES ; 

WITH AN' 

APPENDIX ON THE COLORING OF ALLOYS AND THE RECOVERY 
OF WASTE METALS. 



EDITED BY 



WILLIAM T. BRANNT, 



EDITOR OF THE "TECHNO-CHEMICAL RECEIPT BOOK," AND "THE METAL WORKER'S 
HANDY BOOK." 



ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY-FIVE ENGRAVINGS. 
THIRD EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED AND ENLARGED. 



PHILADELPHIA : 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 

810 Walnut Street. 

1908. 



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Copyright, by 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

1908. 



PRINTED AT THE 

W1CKERSHAM PRINTING HOUSE, 

111 EAST CHESTNUT STREET, 

LANCASTER, Pa., U. «. A. 



PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 



The third edition of "The Metallic Alloys," now pre- 
sented to the public, has been thoroughly revised and 
brought up to date. No essential portions of the other 
editions have been omitted, but considerable new matter, 
including the composition of a number of new alloys, has 
been added, and some portions have been entirely re- 
written. 

While the general arrangement of the text has been pre- 
served, a few changes have been made so as to bring allied 
subjects more closely together, and the principal iron- 
alloys, among which vanadium-steel now occupies a prom- 
inent position, it being of great importance particularly for 
the automobile industry, have been brought together in a 
separate chapter. 

Like the previous editions the book has been provided 
with such a copious table of contents and very full index, 
as to render reference to any subject prompt and easy. 

W. T. B. 

Philadelphia, April 15th, 1908. 

(v) 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



The rapid sale of the first edition of "The Metallic 
Alloys," and the constant demand for it, are the best evi- 
dence that no apology is necessary for presenting a second 
edition. 

The present volume is designed to be an improvement 
on the former. Mistakes have been corrected wherever 
detected, and in some instances the order of treatment of 
different parts has been revised so as to bring them into 
strict logical sequence. Chapters have been added, and 
the physical and chemical relations of the metals, as well as 
the special properties of the alloys, have been more fully 
treated. But, whilst the scope of the work has been en- 
larged, it has been endeavored to preserve its popular 
character so that it will be easily understood by those 
readers who have not made Metallurgy and its kindred Arts 
subjects of special study, and be of practical utility to them. 
In short, the object aimed at has been to present a reliable 
guide to all persons professionally interested in the manu- 
facture and use of alloys, amalgams and solders. 

Great care has been exercised in selecting only such pro- 
cesses and formulas as have stood the test in practice ; and 
many journals, both foreign and domestic, have been 
searched for the purpose of gathering together the results 
of recent experiments by acknowledged authorities. Vari- 
ous text-books and encyclopaedias, previously published in 

(vii) 



Vlll PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

this country and abroad, have also been freely consulted, 

with the object of rendering the present work as complete 

as possible. In particular the editor desires to express his 

indebtedness to the following works : Thurston, A Treatise 

on Brasses, Bronzes and Other Alloys; Krupp, Die Le- 

girungen ; Ledebur, Die Metallverarbeitung auf che7nisch- 

physikalischem Wege ; Muspratt's Theoretische, praktische 

und analytische Chemie. 

Finally, it remains only to be stated that the publishers 

have spared no expense in the mechanical production of 

the book ; and, as is their universal custom, have caused it 

to be provided with a copious table of contents, and a very 

full index, which will add additional value by rendering any 

subject in it easy and prompt of reference. 

W. T. B. 

Philadelphia, July 4th, 1896. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Constitution of technically-prepared metals; Explanation of the terms alloy 
and amalgam; Change in the properties of a metal by alloying. . . 1 

Earliest historical data in reference to the compounding of metals; Early gen- 
eral use of brass; Preparation of alloys by the Greeks; Early alloying of 
the noble metals .......... 2 

Bronze the earliest product of mixed metals; Historical order of alloys; Use of 
amalgams by the Greeks and Arabs; Early application of fire-gilding to 
metallic articles; Alloys known up to the commencement of the reign 
of Charlemagne ; Development of chemistry principally due to the Arabs. & 

Influence of alchemy upon modern chemistry; Use of mixtures of metals in 
the middle ages; Coinage in the middle ages; Advance in the extraction of 
metals from minerals .......... 4 

Present knowledge of metals; The science of metallic alloys a wide field for 
the activity of the chemist; Facts which might indicate that an alloy is a 
chemical combination .......... 5 

Processes which take place in making solutions; Variations in the physical 
properties of ordinary solutions from those of their constituents. . . 6 

Concentration of the content of salt in sea-water; The properties of alloys 
not a certain proof of their character as chemical combinations; Crystalli- 
zation of alloys; Not every alloy a pure chemical combination . . .7 

Formation of actual chemical combinations of separate constituents of the 
alloys; Constitution of alloys in a fixed state; Solutions of metalloids in 
metals ............. ^ 

Boundary between metals and non-metals; Conception of the term alloy; Al- 
loying power of metals; Formation of alloys ...... 9 

Production of alloys; Development and consumption of heat in combining 
the constituents to alloys .......... 10 

Exceptions to the rule according to which alloys are formed. . . .11 

CHAPTER II. 

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 

Necessity of a knowledge of the elements to be alloyed; Division of tbe ele- 
ments into metals and non-metals or metalloids; Characteristics and peculiar 
properties of metals . . . . . . . . . . .12: 

(ix) 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Impossibility of sharply defining the meaning of the words metals and non- 
metals; Physical relations of the metals: What is generally understood by 
the term metal . . . . . . . . . . .13 

Malleability of metals; Difference in the ductility of metals; Opacity of 
metals; Fusibility of metals; Table of melting temperatures corresponding 
to different colors . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

Points in which all the metals agree; Chemical relations of the metals; Affinity 
for oxygen ............ 15 

Division of metals into base and noble; Heavy and light metals; Properties 
of light metals . . . . . . . . . . . .16 

Metals of the alkalies; Metals of the alkaline earths; Metals of the earths . 17 

Decomposition of water by the light metals; Division of the heavy metals 
into four groups . . . . . . . . • . .18 

Influence of non-metallic bodies upon metals . . , . . .19 

Illustrations of the influence of non-metallic bodies upon iron; Influence of 
carbon, sulphur and phosphorus p . . .20 

Definition of a chemical combination; Formation of symbols . . .21 

Table of elements with their symbols and atomic weights; Chemical formula?. 22 

CHAPTER III. 

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

Metals of the alkalies; Potassium; Sodium 23 

Lithium; Metals of the alkaline earths; Metals of the earths proper; Alu- 
minium ............. 24 

Specific heat and conductivity of heat of aluminium; Electric conductivity 
of aluminum ............ 25 

Distribution of aluminium; Former preparation of aluminium; The principle 
of reduction by electrolysis . . . ... . . . .26 

Analyses of commercial aluminium; Effect of iron in aluminium . . .27 
Magnesium; Isolation of magnesium, in 1808, by Davy; Properties of mag- 
nesium ............. 28 

Difficulties in preparing magnesium alloys; Magnesium alloys and amalgams 29 
Heavy metals; Iron group; Iron; Native iron ...... 30 

Iron considered as an alloy with carbon; Preparation of chemically pure iron 31 
Oxidation of iron; Alloying power of iron ....... 32 

Technical importance of iron alloys; Manganese ...... 33 

First extraction of metallic manganese; Alloying power of manganese; 
Cobalt; Principal naturally occurring compounds of cobalt; Properties of 
the pure metal ............ 34 

Alloying power of cobalt; Nickel; Discovery of nickel; Occurrence of 
nickel ores; Commercial nickel; Properties of nickel . . . .35 

Dr. Fleitman's process of refining and toughening nickel; Alloying power 
of nickel . . ... ....... 36 

Early use of nickel for coins; The subject of nickel-steel alloys first called 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE 

attention to by Mr. James Riley, of Glasgow; Nickel-steel armor-plates; 
Chromium, and its properties ......... 37 

Uranium, its occurrence and properties; Zinc group; Zinc; Occurrence of 
zinc ores; First mention of metallic zinc ....... 38 

Commencement of the manufacture of zinc in Germany, and in England; 
Manufacture of zinc in the United States; Properties of metallic zinc; 
Zinc white . . . . . . . . . . • .39 

Alloying power of zinc; Cadmium, its occurrence and discovery; Manner of 
obtaining pure metallic cadmium ........ 40 

Properties and alloying power of cadmium ....... 41 

Indium, and its properties; Gallium, its discovery and properties; Tungsten 
group; Tungsten ........... 42 

Principal native compounds of tungsten; Preparation and properties of me- 
tallic tungsten; Molybdenum; Vanadium; Best known vanadium minerals. 43 
Preparation of vanadium by the electric method; Properties and alloying 
power of vanadium ........... 44 

Tin group; Tin; Occurrence of tin ore; Table of analyses of commercial tin; 
Properties of chemically pure tin . . . . . . . .45 

The l " tin-cry " ; Putty powder; Forms of unmanufactured tin; Alloying 

power of tin; Titanium and its occurrence; Effect of titanium on iron . 46 
Manner of obtaining metallic titanium; Moissan and Violle's electric furnace, 
described and illustrated .......... 47 

Alloying power of titanium; Titanium bronze; Aluminium-titanium alloys . 48- 
Rickard's investigations of the behavior of titaniferous aluminium towards 
various liquids ............ 49 

Electric furnace of the Deutsche Gold und Silberscheideanstalt of Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, described and illustrated ....... 50 

Lead group; Lead; Properties of pure lead; Affinity of lead for oxygen . 51 
Alloying power of lead; Thallium; Silver group; Copper, and its propeties . 52 
Alloying power of copper; Mercury, and its properties . . . .53 

Alloying power of mercury; Amalgams; Silver; Occurrence and properties 
of silver ............. 54 

Gold group; Gold; Wide distribution of gold ...... 55 

Properties and alloying power of gold; Platinum, its occurrence and properties 56 
Alloying power of platinum; Bismuth group; Bismuth, its occurrence, prop- 
erties, and uses; Antimony, its occurrence and properties . . . .57 

Arsenic, its occurrence and properties ........ 58 

Definition of an alloy as generally understood; Changes in the properties of 
a metal by the addition of a non-metallic element; Sulphur, its occurrence 
and purification; Affinity of sulphur for metals: Characteristics of com- 
binations of the metals with sulphur ........ 59 

Carbon: AVide distribution of carbon throughout nature; Crystallized forms 
of carbon; Solution of carbon in melted metals ...... 60 

Phosphorus; Effect of phosphorus upon metals; Phosphor-bronze . . 61 



66 



Xll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALEOYS. 

Changes which certain metals undergo by melting together or alloying 

Liquation; The eutectic solution; Formation of ice in a common salt solution. 62 
4Separation of silver from a melted silver-copper alloy during cooling; The 
eutectic silver-copper alloy . . . . . . . 

Appearance of silver-copper alloys under the microscope, illustrated . 
Appearance of the eutectic silver-copper alloy under the microscope, illustrated 65 
Behavior of alloys of lead and tin, and of lead and antimony in congealing 
Definition of liquation . ........ 

Prevention of liquation; Changes in the properties of an alloy by remelting 
and renewed cooling; Progress of cooling in the solidification of liquid 
metals and alloys; Variations in the composition due to liquation . . 67 

Tendency of copper-tin alloys towards liquation; Tin stains; Composition of 
French pieces of ordnance ......... 68 

Tendency towards liquation of various alloys . . . . .69 

Specific gravity; Variations in the actual and calculated specific gravities; Ex- 
pansion and condensation of alloys; Sources of error in determining the 
specific gravity ............ 70 

Formula for calculating the specific gravity of an alloy; Determinations of the 

specific gravities of copper-tin alloys by Eiche and Thurston . . .71 
Table of specific gravities of copper-tin alloys ...... 73 

Besults of Eiche experiments with copper-tin alloys . . . . . 74 

Table of specific gravities of copper-zinc alloys . .... . .76 

Table of specific gravities of copper-silver alloys ...... 77 

Table of specific gravities of copper-gold alloys . . . . .78 

Tables of specific gravities of silver-gold and lead gold alloys . . .79 
Tables of specific gravities of silver-lead and antimony-tin alloys . . .80 
Table of specific gravities of antimony-bismuth alloys . . . . .81 

Table of specific gravities of antimony-lead alloys. . . . . .82 

Tables of specific gravities of tin-cadmium and tin-bismuth alloys. . . 83 

Table of specific gravities of tin-silver alloys. ...... 84 

Table of specific gravities of tin-lead alloys ....... 85 

Table of specific gravities of tin-gold alloys ....... 86 

Tables of specific gravities of cadmium-bismuth and cadmium-lead alloys . 87 
Tables of specific gravities of bismuth-silver and bismuth-lead alloys . . 88 
Table of specific gravities of bismuth-gold alloys ...... 89 

Table of specific gravities of tin-mercury alloys (tin amalgams) . . .90 

Table of specific gravities of lead-mercury alloys (lead amalgams); Division 
of alloys examined into three groups. ....... 91 

Alloys which plainly show contraction; Alloys which plainly show expan- 
sion; Alloys which do not show plainly either expansion or contraction . 92 
Crystallization; Copper-tin alloys; Copper-zinc alloys . . . . .93 

Antimony-zinc alloys; Gold-silver, lead-silver and silver-mercury alloys; 
Gold-tin alloys; Iron-tin alloys; Iron-manganese alloys; Importance of the 
crystallization of alloys ........•• 94 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

PAGE 

Strength; Definition of strength; Law in regard to the influences exerted upon 
the strength of metals by alloying . . . . . . . .95 

Increase in the strength of copper by the addition of tin, or of aluminium . 96 

Influence of an addition of zinc upon the strength of copper; Example of the 
increase in strength which can be brought about by alloying; Additional 
increase in strength by the addition of a third metal to an alloy consisting 
of two metals . . ... . . . . . . . .97 

Examples of such increase in strength ........ 98 

Steady increase in the limit of elasticity with the breaking strength; Thurs- 
ton's investigations of the strength of copper-tin alloys . . . .99 

Measurement of the tenacity of alloys; Examination of aluminium-copper 
alloys, and of zinc-copper alloys with additions of aluminium . . . 100 

Elongations of zinc-copper alloys; Hardness; Increase in hardness by alloying. 101 

Method for determining the degree of hardness; Influence of the alloy upon 
the degree of hardness of the metals; Mode of decreasing the hardness of 
copper-tin alloys; Hardening of copper by the absorption of zinc . . 102 

Hardening of gold and silver; Wear of copper-silver alloys by abrasion; In- 
crease in the hardness of lead by alloying with antimony; Hardness of 
lead-tin alloys, and of zinc-tin alloys; Increase in the hardness of iron . 103 

Flexibility or ductility; Conditions on which flexibility depends; Most flexible 
metals 104 

Influence of temperature on flexibility; Diminution of flexibility by alloying. 105 

Effect of various metals on flexibility; Exception to the rule according to 
which pure metals are more flexible than alloys ..... 106 

Casting capacity; Properties on which the casting capacity depends; Melting 
temperature: Lowering of the melting temperature by alloying illustrated 
by examples and diagrams . . . . . . . . . 107 

Melting temperatures of copper-zinc alloys ....... 109 

Reduction in the melting temperature by the addition of a third or fourth 
metal to an alloy ........... Ill 

Pule applicable to the manufacture of very fusible alloys; Fluidity and its 
influence upon the casting capacity of alloys ...... 112 

Development of gases; Influence of the development of gases on the casting 
capacity; Prevention of the development of dissolved gases . . . 113 

Origin of the gases ........... 114 

Means for stopping the development of gases; Shrinkage; Definition of 
shrinkage . . . . . . . * . . . . 115 

Shrinkage of pure metals and of alloys; Conductivity for heat and electricity; 
Injury to the conducting power for electricity by alloying; Matthiessen's 
investigations ............ 116 

Conductivity of copper and zinc for heat and electricity; Influence of a for- 
eign body on the conductivity . . . . . . . . . 117 

Color; Effect on the color of a metal by the addition of determined quantities 
of another; Diversity in color of the metals ...... 118 

Scale, for colored alloys. .......... 119 



XIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Comparison of the scale of color of copper-tin and copper-zinc alloys; Color- 
ing power of nickel ........... 120 

Coloring power of gold; Kesistance to chemical influences; Practical impor- 
tance of the resistance of alloys to chemical influences; Action of the atmos- 
phere on alloys. . . . . . . . . . . .121 

Reduction in the chemical action of a body by alloying a metal with another; 
Experiments of St. Claire Deville ........ 122 

Calvert and Johnson's investigations of the resistance of copper-tin and cop- 
per-zinc alloys to acids and salts; Influence of sea-water upon copper-zinc 
and copper-zinc-tin alloys. ......... 123 

Formation and analysis of patina; Action of chemical agents upon copper- 
silver and gold-silver alloys; Action of acids and salt solutions upon lead- 
tin alloys; Results of Knapp's investigations . . . . . . 125 

R. Weber's experiments with lead-tin alloys; Composition of alloys for ves- 
sels intended for measuring fluids as fixed by law in Germany . . . 127 

CHAPTER V. 

PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 

General method of preparing alloys; Utensils used for melting; Crucibles and 
their management ........... 128 

Melting in a reverberatory furnace; Necessity of preserving a deoxidizing 
flame within the furnace; Loss of metal in melting ..... 129 

Precautionary measures in preparing alloys in a crucible; Bodies used for 
covering the surface of the metals ........ 130 

Crucibles for the preparation of alloys from noble or costly metals; Alloying 
two metals with greatly varying densities ... . . . . . 131 

Effect of stirring the mixture with sticks of dry, soft wood; Change in the 
nature of alloys by repeated remelting ....... 132 

Method of alloying larger quantities of one metal with smaller quantities of 
another .............. 133 

Causes of the advance in the alloy industry; Metals chiefly used in the manu- 
facture of alloys ........... 134 

Methods of making experiments in the preparation of new alloys; Combina- 
tions of metals with non-metallic elements. ...... 135 

CHAPTER VI. 

COPPER ALLOYS. 

Difficulty in the employment of copper for various purposes; Influence of for- 
eign bodies upon the properties of copper and its alloys; Effect of a content 
of lead 137 

Effect of various metals upon copper; Influence of an admixture of cuprous 
oxide; Effect of sulphur .......... 138 

Effect of silicon and phosphorus; Hampe's researches regarding the behavior 
of copper towards admixtures ......... 139 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



140 



141 



142 



143 



144 



145 



1- 



147 



Sources of commercial copper; The most important copper alloys; Copper 
gold alloys .... ....... 

Copper-silver alloys; Alloys of copper with the base metals; Antiquity of 
bronze ......... 

Ancient method of preparing brass; Copper-zinc alloys; Earliest account of 
the alloy of copper and zinc; Influence of zinc upon copper 

Constitution of copper- zinc alloys; Properties of copper-zinc alloys; Brass, 
its properties, manufacture, and uses . . . . 

Introduction of the manufacture of brass in Germany, and in England; Com- 
position of commercial varieties of brass; Summary of researches regard- 
ing the behavior of alloys of copper and zinc ...... 

Physical properties of alloys of copper and zinc; Crystalline structure of brass; 
S. Kalischer's researches regarding metals becoming crystalline 

Examination of different varieties of sheet-brass; Sheets of tombac and 
bronze-sheets ... 

Preparation of a very ductile brass; Strength of brass; Change in the 
molecular structure of brass; Melting-point of brass ..... 

Use of old copper in the manufacture of brass; Effect of foreign metals upon 
brass; Use of brass in the arts ......... 148 

Tables of the properties of copper-zinc alloys; Sheet brass for the manufacture 
of sheet and wire; S. Sperry's investigations regarding the influence of 
antimony upon (he cold-shortness of brass ...... 149 

Brands of zinc suitable for the manufacture of brass; Proportions of copper 
to zinc for sheet-brass which is to resist the action of acid and alkaline 
fluids; Brass for cartridge shells; Best evidence of the quality of a brand 
of copper ............. 150 

Table showing the composition of different varieties of brass for sheet and 
wire; Japanese brass (Schin-chiu); Cast brass ...... 151 

Analysis of different kinds of cast brass; Ordinary cast brass (potin jaune, 
potin gris), sterling metal .......... 152 

Fine cast-brass; Tough brass for tubes ........ 153 

Hamilton's metal, mosaic gold, chrysorin; French cast-brass for fine castings 154 

Bristol brass (Prince's metal); Ronia metal; D'Arcet's gilding metals; 
Malleable brass; Early patents for malleable brass . 

Varieties of malleable brass; Muntz metal; Yellow metal 

Macht's yellow metal; Bobierre's metal; Aich's metal 

Sterro-metal; Sterro-metal from Rosthorn's factory in Lower Austria; 
lish sterro-metal (Gedge's alloy for ship-sheathing) . 

Results of tests of sterro-metal; Delta metal 

Table of analyses of Delta metal ..... 

Durano metal; Tobin bronze; Analyses of Tobin bronze 

Deoxidized bronze . . 

Manufacture of brass; Early preparation of brass; Manufacture of brass ac- 
cording to the old method with the use of zinc ores ..... 

Manufacture of brass by the direct fusion of the metals; Results of experi- 



Eng- 



155 
156 

157 

158 
159 
160 
161 

162 

163 



XVI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

ments in fusing the metals directly in special furnaces; Construction of 
furnaces for crucibles, described and illustrated ..... 165 

Furnace adapted for the use of coke ........ 166 

Size of Crucibles; Another construction of a brass furnace .... 167 

Furnace for heating the moulds for plate-brass ...... 168 

Modifications in the arrangement of furnaces for the use of coal; Fiat's re- 
volving crucible furnace, described and illustrated . . . . .169 

Construction of furnace in which the fusion of the brass is effected directly 
upon the hearth ........... 170 

Manner in which fusion is effected. ........ 171 

■Casting brass. ............ 172 

■Casting of ingots; Moulds for casting ingots ....... 173 

Importance of the temperature of the fused brass; Casting of plate-brass . 174 
Use of iron moulds; Loam moulds; Granite moulds, and their preparation . 175 

Subsequent treatment of plate-brass . .176 

Furnace for heating sheets; Reverberatory furnace for wood firing, described 
and illustrated .............. 177 

Cleansing or pickling of brass; Operation of pickling or dipping; Pickling 

fluid 179 

Organic substances used as additions to the pickle; Mode of imparting a dull 
lustreless surface to the articles . ........ 180 

Subsequent treatment of the pickled articles; Tombac; Alloys to which the 
term tombac is applied; Origin of the word tombac; Properties of pure 
tombac ............. 181 

Table giving the composition of various kinds of tombac; Berlin alloys for 
lamps and chandeliers; Lyons gold; Color of tombac . .... 182 

Composition of alloys for candlesticks, inkstands, etc.; Mannheim gold or 

similor; Chrysochalk (gold copper); Chrysorin 183 

Pinchbeck; French oreide; Special formula for the preparation of oreide . 184 
Talmi or talmi-gold; Table giving the composition of a few alloys used in 
the manufacture of articles of talmi gold ....... 185 

Tissier's gold; Tournay's metal; Platina; Manilla gold; Dutch leaf or Dutch 

gold 186 

Preparation of Dutch leaf . ... . . . . . . .187 

Bronze powders, and their preparation . . . . . . . .188 

Table giving the compositions of the alloys for some colors of bronze pow- 
ders; Brocade . . . . . . . . . . . .189 

White brass 190 

Birmingham platinum or platinum-lead; Other alloys for white buttons; 

Sorel's alloy 191 

Bath metal; Guettier's button metal; Ordinary English white metal; Fon- 
tainemoreau's bronzes . . . . . . . . . - 192 

Table exhibiting the properties of the alloys of copper and zinc as described 
by the best authorities ... ....... 193 

Note on the table by Prof. Robert H. Thurston 198 



CONTENTS. XV11 

PAGE 

CHAPTER VII. 

COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 

Bronze in general; Use of bronze among the early civilized people, Origin of 
the term bronze; Definition of the term bronze . ..... 201 

Constitution of bronze; Ductility of bronze; Influence of admixtures of for- 
eign bodies upon the properties of bronze; Cause of the difficulties found 
by many manufacturers .......... 202 

Effect of zinc, and of lead upon the properties of bronze .... 203 

Effects of iron, nickel, and other metals; Conditions by which the physical 
properties of bronze may be materially affected ...... 204 

Variations in the color of bronze according to the content of tin; Ductility 
and hardness of bronzes .......... 205 

Deductions from the results of modern researches regarding the strength and 
hardness of bronzes; Molecular change in alloys rich in copper by forging; 
Results of quickly cooling off red-hot bronze in cold water. . . . 206 

How to secure the greatest strength of bronzes; Table exhibiting the density 
of various copper-tin alloys ...'..... 207 

Table, of melting points of bronzes. ........ 208 

Chemical behavior of bronzes towards the oxygen of the atmosphere; Effect 
of the oxygen; Properties shown by the melted bronze; Preventative 
against the absorption of oxygen ........ 209 

Phosphorus as a deoxidizing agent; Influence of the construction of the melt- 
ing furnaces upon the loss of metal and the qualities of the castings . . 210 
Tendency of bronzes towards liquation, described and illustrated . . . 211 
Behavior of the solidified alloys towards the atmosphere; Melting and cast- 
ing of bronze; Casting small articles . . . . . . .212 

Preparation of large quantities of bronze ....... 213 

Arrangement of a reverberatory furnace especially adapted for melting not 
too large a quantity of bronze ......... 214 

Construction of a furnace especially adapted for melting a large quantity of 
bronze .............. 215 

The different kinds of bronze; Bronzes of prehistoric times .... 216 

Composition of the older bronzes . . . . . . . . . . 218 

Composition of some ancient bronzes; Ordnance or gun-metal; Historical 
notice of the use of bronze for casting cannon ...... 219 

Properties demanded from a good gun-metal; How to obtain these properties 220 
Additions to actual bronze; Content of tin in bronze for ordnance; Outline 
of the operations of melting and casting gun-metal ..... 221 

Double furnace in use in the gun foundry at Spandau ..... 222 

Shaft furnace after the principle of Herbetz's steam injector . . . 223 

Use of old cannon in casting ordnance; Influence of the casting temperature 
upon the physical properties of ordnance-bronze ..... 224 

Cooling ordnance-bronze; Moulds used in casting; Steel-bronze . . . 225 
Table showing the composition of ordnance bronze of various times and dif- 
ferent countries; Bell-metal; Ancient use of bells and cymbals; Introduc- 
tion of actual church bells ......... 226 



XV111 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Weights of some large bells; Principal requisites of good bell-metal . . 227 
Properties of bell-metal; Important features on which the tone of a bell ma- 
terially depends; Melting and casting of bell-metal 228 

Reason for bells acquiring a disagreeable tone by repeated remelting; Table 

showing the composition of some bell-metals 229 

Alloys for small clock bells, table bells, sleigh bells, etc.; Chinese tam-tams 
or gongs ..........-•• 230 

Algiers metal (metal d'Alger); Silver bell metal; Bronzes for various pur- 
poses ..........•■• 231 

Designation of various kinds of bronzes; Medal and coin bronze . . . 232 
Composition of the baser coin of several countries; Coin-bronze of the Greeks 
and Romans; Color of medals; Manufacture of medals .... 233 

Ormolu (or moulu); Actual ormolu; Bronze for small castings; Gold bronze. 234 

Bronze to be gilded; Bronze for ship-sheathing 235 

Machine bronze 236 

Variations in the composition of machine bronze 237 

Table showing the composition of machine bronze; Table showing the com- 
position of approved alloys for bearings . . . . . . . 238 

Table showing the mixtures employed by a large engineering firm using 
scrap and new metal; Bronze for articles exposed to shocks and very great 
friction; Bronze for valve balls and other constituent parts to which other 

parts are to be soldered 239 

Bronze resisting the action of the air; Beautiful bronze to be used as a substi- 
tute for brass; Deterioration in the quality of bronze by remelting; Remedy 

for such deterioration 240 

Defective bronze castings; Causes of the formation of blisters and pores; De- 
struction of the oxides present and which may be formed .... 241 
Speculum metal; Properties of good speculum metal; Specula made by Mudge; 
Composition of the actual speculum metal; Best proportions for speculum 

metal according to David Ross . 242 

Table showing the composition of some alloys used for speculum metal; Com- 
position of the mirror of the Ross telescope; Alloy for the manufacture of 
concave mirrors ........... 243 

Telescope Mirror of Birr Castle, Ireland; Mirror in the Polytechnicum, 
Brunswick. Germany; Roman metal mirror; Old Egyptian metal mirror; 
Chinese metal mirrors; Phosphor-bronze; Reducing action of phosphorus. 244 
Discovery of phosphor-bronze ......... 245 

Methods of making phosphor-bronze; Preparation of phosphor-copper, and 
of phosphor-tin. ........... 246 

Preparation of phosphor-bronze wire; Properties of correctly prepared phos- 
phor-bronze; Results of physical tests of phosphor-bronze . . . . 247 

Applications of phosphor-bronze; Variations in the content of phosphorus in 
bronze ............. 248 

Varieties of phosphor-bronze which are considered to answer all requirements; 
Analyses of different kinds of phosphor-bronze ...... 249 



CONTENTS. XIX 

PAGE 

Eloper's phosphor-bronze; Phosphor-lead bronzes; Phosphor-aluminium 
bronze . . . . .•'■". . . . . . . . 250 

Silicon bronze; Weiller's alloy; Action of silicon upon copper; Properties of 
silicon bronze; Conductivity and strength of silicon-bronze telegraph and 
and telephone wires ........... 251 

Power of silicon-bronze wires of resisting snow; Composition of silicon-bronze 
telegraph and telephone wires . . . . . . . . . 252 

Composition of silicon-bronze; Bronze for telephone lines; Results of E. Van 
der Ven's researches. .......... 253 

Manganese bronze. ........... 254 

Preparation of cupro-manganese ......... 255 

Composition of two varieties of cupro-manganese; Preparation of manganese- 
bronze ............. 256 

Quantity of cupro-manganese to be added to bronze; Addition of aluminium. 257 
Properties of manganese-bronze; Art bronzes ...... 258 

Bronze for casting statues .......... 259 

Color of statue-bronze; Patina, and its formation ...... 260 

Causes of defects in statue-bronze ......... 261 

Table of a series of alloys of different colors suitable for statue- bronze; 
Statue-bronze according to d' Arcet . . . . . . . . 262 

Table showing the composition of a few celebrated statues; Chinese bronzes; 
Analyses of different specimens of Chinese bronze ..... 263 

Imitation Chinese bronzes . . . . . . . . . 264 

Japanese bronzes; Old Peruvian bronze; Turkish bronze basin; Antique 
bronze weapon ............ 265 

Melting and casting art-bronze; Furnace used in the Royal Foundry in 

Munich 266 

Moulds for large castings; Table of different alloys of copper and tin, giv- 
ing some of their mechanical and physical properties .... 267 
Note on the table 274 

CHAPTER VIII. 

ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 

Copper-arsenic alloys; Copper-lead alloys ....... 277 

Copper-iron alloys ........... 278 

Copper-steel; Henry Schneider's patents for the manufacture of alloys of 
iron and copper, and steel and copper ....... 279 

Alloys of copper and much zinc; Table giving the composition of alloys for 
cheaper bearing metals .......... 280 

Dunlevie and Jones' bearing metal; Alloys which can be filed; Manganese- 
brass; Copper-tungsten alloys; Copper-cobalt alloys ..... 281 

Cobalt-bronze; Copper-magnesium alloys; Copper-antimony alloys . . 282 
Mira metal .283 



XX CONTENTS. 

PA(iE 

CHAPTER IX. 

TIN-ALLOYS. 

Tin-lead alloys; Densities of tin-lead alloys .... ... 284 

Tin-lead alloys for the manufacture of domestic utensils; Fahlun brilliants; 

Table showing the melting-points of tin-lead alloys 285 

Table of alloys for baths used in tempering and heating steel articles . . 286 
Britannia metal; Regulations of the Pewterer's Company of England; Prop- 
erties of Britannia metal; Influence of other melals on Britannia metal . 287 
Table showing the composition of several varieties of Britannia metal . . 288 
Dr. Carl Karmarsch's investigations of Britannia metal; Preparation of 
Britannia metal ........... 289 

Shaping and casting Britannia metal; Preparation of the moulds for casting. 290 
Polishing Britannia metal articles; Biddery metal; Composition of genuine 
India Biddery metal .......... 292 

Ashberry metal; Minofor metal; English metal . ..... 293 

White metals — Bearing metals; Impracticability of combining many metals 

into one and the same alloy; Principal use of the so-called white metals . 294 
Advantages of white metal bearings; Constitution of white metal bearings; 
Metallographic examination of congealed white metal .... 295 

Variation in the proportions of the constituents of white metal; White metal 
bearings of the Berlin Railroad. ........ 296 

Bearing metal used by the Austrian Northwest Railroad; Table showing the 

compositions of the more frequently used compounds for bearings . . 297 
Babbitt's anti friction metal . . . . . . . . . . 298 

German Admiralty specifications for Babbitt metal ..... 299 

Kingston's metal; Anti-friction alloys for hydraulic machinery; Fenton's 
alloy for axle boxes for locomotives, and cars; Dewrance's patent bearing 
for locomotives; Alloy for anti-friction brasses; Alloy for metal stopcocks 
which deposit no verdigris; English white metal; Composition of white 
metal for machines; Hoyle's patent alloy for pivot bearings . . . 300 
Alloys used for white metal bearings in the factory of H. Roose of Breslau; 
Results of C. B. Dudley's investigations of bearing metals. . . . 301 

Ex. B. metal of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company ..... 302 

Tables of anti-friction metals ......... 303 

CHAPTER X. 

NICKEL ALLOYS. 

Early knowledge of nickel alloys; Meaning of the Chinese name packfong or 
packtong; Analysis of packfong; Suhl white copper; Prize for the inven- 
tion of an alloy as a substitute for silver offered in Prussia, in 1823 . . 306 

Historical notice of German silver; Various names under which German 
silver has been known; Nickel-copper alloys ...... 307 

Composition of modern small coins of various countries; Berthier's alloy; 
Copper-sheet with 1 to 3 per cent, nickel; Alloy used in watch factories; 
Experiments of Kiinzel and Montefiore Levi ...... 308 



CONTENTS. XXI 

PAGE 

Nickel-copper-zinc alloys; Properties of German silver; Sources of nickel . 309 
Reduction of nickel ores; Relationship between nickel and cobalt, and nickel 

and iron; Addition of iron to German silver 310 

Effect of an addition of silver to German silver; Summary of the properties 
of nickel alloys ............ 311 

Difficulties in the mechanical manipulation of German silver; Use of nickel- 
alloys in thermo-electric piles; German silver or argentan. . . . 312 

Composition of alloys used by various factories; Table of analyses of different 
kinds of German silver . . . . . . . . . .313 

Effect of additions of various kinds of metal to German silver ... . 314 

Substitutes for German silver; Nickel-bronze; Bismuth-bronze . . . 315 
Manganese German silver; Aphtit; Arguzoid; Ferro-German silver; Silver- 
like alloy; Platinoid 316 

Manganin; Dienett's German silver ....... 317 

Pirsch's patented German silver; Alf£nide, argiroide, and allied alloys; 
Toucas's alloy ............ 318 

Alloy according to Trabuk; Table of a number of nickel-alloys arranged ac- 
cording to their composition ......... 319 

Copper, zinc, and nickel .......... 320 

Copper, zinc, nickel, lead; Copper, zinc, nickel, iron ..... 321 

Copper, tin, nickel, with or without zinc; Copper, nickel, silver (Ruolz 

alloys) • . . 322 

Other alloys 323 

Sperry's analyses of nickel alloys; Manufacture of German silver on a large 
scale, Importance of the purity of the metals used ..... 324 

Different methods of manufacturing German silver; German process . . 325 

Casting the alloy; Moulds used in casting plates ...... 326 

Principal difficulty in casting plates of German silver; English process; Mode 
of melting the metals together .... ..... 327 

Manner of ascertaining how the alloy will act in casting; Casting of the plates. 328 
Uses of German silver; Manufacture of German silver sheet; Heating furnace 
for direct firing ........... 329 

Muffle furnaces ............ 381 

Nickel-zinc alloy; Nickel-tin alloy ........ 332 

Nickel-aluminium alloy; Silver-bronze; Solbisky's nickel-aluminium alloys; 
Rosein; Martino's hard alloys for drilling and cutting tools; Nickel-steel; 
M. Henry Schneider's patents; Specifications of the first patent . . 334 
Marbeaus' nickel-spiegel; Preparation of ferro-nickel and nickel-steel alloys 
for technical purposes; Preparation on a large scale of 5 per cent, nickel- 
iron .............. 335 

Preparation of nickel-steel at Homestead, Penna. ; Riley on nickel-steel . 336 
Tests of nickel-steel made for the U. S. Navy Department; Conductivity of 
nickel-steel ............ 337 



XX11 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTEK XI. 

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 

Alloying power of alluminium; Practical production of aluminium alloys . 338 
Properties of aluminium alloys; Aluminium-iron alloys .... 339 

Aluminium-steel; Mode of applying the aluminium; J. W. Langley on the 
practice in the United States ......... 340 

Aluminium-copper alloys; Aluminium-bronze; Properties of aluminium- 
bronze ............. 341 

Melting-point of aluminium-bronze; Importance of the purity of the metals 
used in the preparation of aluminium-bronze ...... 342 

Directions of the " Magnesium and Aluminium Fabrik " of Hemelingen for 
making aluminium-bronzes ......... 343 

Dilution of a high per cent, bronze to a lower one ..... 344 

Casting of aluminium-bronze .... . . ... 345 

Thomas D. West on casting aluminium-bronze, and other strong metals . 346 
Forging of aluminium-bronze; Examples of rolling aluminium-bronze . . 347 
Table of results obtained at the South Boston Iron Works with pieces of the 

Cowles Company alloys; Tests made at the Washington Navy Yard . . 350 
Mode of preparing aluminium-copper alloys according to Thurston; Alumin- 
ium-brass; Action of aluminium upon brass . . . . . • 351 

Uses of aluminium-brass . . . . . . . ' 352 

Table of results of a series of tests of aluminium -brass; Richards bronze . 353 
Aluminium-nickel-copper alloys; Alloys manufactured by the "Webster 
Crown Metal Company," England . . . . . • • 354 

Lechesne; Alloys specified by the patent ....... 356 

Alloys recommended by G. F. Andrews; Sun-bronze; Metalline; Aluminium 
alloy for dentists' fillings; Aluminium alloy for type-metal; Aluminium- 
nickel bronze ... ......... 357 

Partinium; Aluminium-bronze alloy; Aluminium-chromium alloy; Alumin- 
ium-magnesium alloy called magnalium ....... 358 

Aluminium-magnesium alloy for reflectors; Alloy of aluminium and tin; 
Brazing aluminium-bronze ......... 359 

Soldering aluminium-bronze; Hard solder for 10 per cent, aluminium-bronze; 
Middling hard solder; Soft solder; Schlosser's directions for preparing 
solder for aluminium-bronze ......... 360 

Soldering aluminium; Mourey's aluminium solders . . ■ . . ." 361 
Bourbouze's aluminium solder; Frischmuth's aluminium solders; M. H. 
Lancon's method of preparing aluminium solder ..... 362 

Solder for wire and thin articles; Solder for large pieces of aluminium and 
aluminium sheets; Platinum-aluminium solder; Gold-aluminium solder; 
O. M. Thowless' solder for aluminium; C. Sailer's solder . . . 3(J3 

Chloride of silver as a solder for aluminium; Richards' s solder . . . 364 



CONTENTS. XX111 



PAGE 

CHAPTER XII. 



LEAD ALLOYS. 

Effect of the addition of other metals to lead; Affinity of zinc and iron for 

lead .366 

Type-metal; Properties of an alloy which is to serve for type-metal . . 367 
Table of some alloys suitable for casting type; French and English type- 
metals .............. 368 

Ei-hart's type-metal; Manufacture of type; Alloy for plates for engraving 
music . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 

Alloy for keys of flutes and similar parts of instruments; Shot-metal; Mix- 
ture of metals used; Precautions to be observed in preparing the alloy; 
Preparation of the alloy . . . . . . . . . 370 

Proportions of arsenic to lead used in England and in France; Effect of the 

arsenic . ........... 371 

Casting of shot; Invention of Watts; Shot-towers and shot-wells . . . 372 
Water for the reception of the shot; Formation of shot by centrifugal force; 

Invention of David Smith for the manufacture of drop-shot . . . 373 
Sorting the shot ............ 375 

Preparation of large shot; Alloys of lead and iron . . . . . 376 

Alloys of lead and other metals ......... 377 

CHAPTER XIII. 

CADMIUM ALLOYS. 

Properties of cadmium alloys; General composition of cadmium alloys; Li- 
powitz's alloy ............ 378 

Cadmium alloys of various melting points ....... 379 

Very fusible alloy; Wood's alloy or metal; Cliche metal; Table of melting 
points of fusible alloys; Stability of cadmium alloys . . . . . 381 

CHAPTER XIV. 

BISMUTH ALLOYS. 

Behavior of bismuth towards other metals; Alloys of bismuth and copper; 
Alloys of bismuth and zinc; Alloys of bismuth and tin .... 382 

Alloys of bismuth and lead; Alloys of bismuth and iron; Alloys of bismuth 
with antimony; Cliche metal ......... 383 

Alloys for filling out defective places in metallic castings: Alloys of bismuth, 
tin, and lead; Newton's metal; Rose's alloys; Safety-plates for steam boil- 
ers; Composition of some alloys which are said to melt at a certain pres- 
sure of steam ............ 384 

Onion's flexible alloy; D'Arcet's fusible alloys; Lichtenberg's metal . . 385 

Bismuth alloys for delicate castings; Bismuth alloy for cementing glass; 
Table of fusing points of the fusible combinations of bismuth, lead, and tin. 386 

Baths for tempering small steel tools, and their use; Alloys of bismuth and 
tin . .387 



XXIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XV. 

IRON ALLOYS (ALLOY STEELS). 

Derivation of the substances which combine with iron and alloy with it; As- 
sociates of commercial iron; Properties of the purest iron which can be 
made by melting processes on a large scale . . . . . 388 

Most important constituent of iron; Distinctive mark of the different varieties 
of iron; Classification of iron; Effect of silicon on iron .... 389 

Effect of manganese on iron; Manganese-steel; Ferro-manganese and its use. 390 

Hadfield's manganese steel; Use of manganese steel; Chrome-steel; Modes of 
uniting iron and chromium . . . . . . . . . . 391 

Ferro-chrome from Kapfenberg in Styria; Preparation of chrome-steel; 
Effect of chromium in steel ......... 392 

Properties and uses of chrome steel; Tungsten-steel; Ferro-tungsten . . 393 

General effect of tungsten in steel; Results of bending tests conducted on 
bars of tungsten-steel .......... 394 

Peculiarity of the fracture of tungsten-steel; Magnetic retentiveness of tung- 
sten-steels with a high content of carbon; Analyses of special tungsten- 
steels . ... . . 395 

Vanadium -steel; Discovery of the element vanadium; Present importance of 
vanadium-steel . . ..... . . . . . 396 

H^louise's investigations of the effect of vanadium on steel .... 397 

Properties of steel with and without vanadium, according to J. Kent Smith; 
Results of Prof. Arnold's bending tests on vanadium-steel . . . 398 

Remarks of J. Kent Smith on vanadium and its action; Table of compara- 
tive effects of chromium and vanadii m on static tests . . ' . . 399 

Table showing the different ways in which vanadium, may act on steel; 
Preparation of vanadium .......... 400 

Classification of vanadium steels; Results obtained by the addition of 
vanadium ............. 401 

Results obtained with vanadium and nickel; Vanadium chrome-steels and 
the best proportions for them; Effect of chromium ..... 402 

Table of results of experiments showing the influence of vanadium on chrome. 403 

CHAPTER XVI. 

SILVER ALLOYS. 

Alloys of silver of real interest; Alloys of silver and aluminium . . . 404 

Tiers-argent (one-third silver); Alloys of silver and zinc; Godfrey's alloys. 405 

Properties of alloys of silver and zinc; Alloys of silver, copper, and nickel. 406 

Argent-Ruolz; Alloys containing silver and nickel, patented by C. D. Abel. 407 

Purification of nickel; Treatment of nickel-speiss ..... 408 

Preparation of Abel's alloys . . . . . . • . . . 409 

Alloys of silver, copper, nickel, and zinc ....... 410 

Alloys for Swiss fractional coins; Mousset's silver alloys; Alloys of silver and 

arsenic; Alloys of silver, copper and cadmium . . ... . 411 



CONTENTS. XXV 

PAGE 

Alloys of silver with various metals; Alloys of silver and copper . . . 412 

Present determination of the fineness of coins; Table showing the composi- 
tion of the silver coins of various countries ...... 413 

Silver-copper alloys employed in England for manufacturing purposes . . 414 

Fineness of silver used in the manufacture of silver-ware in different coun- 
tries; Casting of silver; Blanching ........ 415 

Remarkable series of alloys of the Japanese; Shaku-do; Shibu-ichi, with 
typical analyses . . . . . . . . . . . 41 b* 

Pickling solutions used by the Japanese; The so-called " antimony" of the 
Japanese art metal-workers . . . . . . . .417 

Action of the pickling solutions; Production of various Japanese alloys; 
Moku-me; Niyu-nagashi . . " . . . . . . . .418 

Alloys resembling silver; Warne's metal; Minargent; White alloy closely 
resembling silver; Delalot's alloy; Tournu-Leonard's alloy . . . 420 

Clark's patent alloy; Pirsch-Baudoin's alloys ...... 421 

CHAPTER XVII. 

«OLD ALLOYS. 

Earl}' use of gold dust as the principal medium of exchange, the instrument 
of association; Sacred value placed on gold by the Egyptians; Inutility of 
the majority of gold alloys ... . . . . . . 422 

Mutual affinity of gold and copper; Combinations of gold and silver; Modi- 
fications of the color of gold; Gold-alloys of various colors; Behavior of 
lead towards gold ............ 423 

Alloys of arsenic or antimony and gold; Alloys of gold and palladium; Alloy 
of aluminium and gold; Nuremberg gold; Action of cadmium on an alloy 
of gold and silver; Preparation of gold alloys ...... 424 

Manufacture of gold articles; Casting gold for coinage; Casting ingots for the 
preparation of gold-plate; Melting the metals constituting the alloys . 425 

Furnace used by manufacturers of gold ware ...... 42& 

Preparation of granulated gold; Production of very tough gold; Remelting 
scrap gold; Legally fixed standards for gold alloys ..... 427 

Conversion of carats and grains into thousandths; Use of gold-alloys; 
Standard gold 428 

Remedy allowed by English law for abrasion or loss by wear: Table showing 
the fineness of gold coinage of various countries; Gold alloys for the manu- 
facture of jewelry; Legally fixed standards for gold jewelry . . . 429- 

Table of gold-alloys as legally fixed by various governments; Gold-alloys 
which can be legally used in various countries; Pforzhoeim gold-ware; 
Table showing the proportions of various metals incorporated in the gold- 
alloys used by jewelers .......... 430 

Colored gold; Table showing the composition of the alloys most frequently 
used, with their specific colors ......... 431 

Preparation of alloys of gold by the galvanic process; Coloring finished gold- 
alloys 432 



XXVI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 

Alloying power of platinum; Properties of platinum-alloys; Composition of 
platinum occurring in nature; Furnace for melting platinum . . . 433 

Preparation of platinum alloys on a small scale; Platinum-iridium alloys . 434 

Alloy for laboratory crucibles; Composition of meter rules of the French 
government; Platinum-palladium alloys ....... 435 

Platinum-gold alloys and their uses ........ 436 

Platinum-silver alloys; Platine an titre; Platinum-gold-silver alloys; Pla- 
tinor 437 

Platinum-bronze . . . . . . . . . . . 438 

Alloys of platinum with the base metals; Alloys with iron; Properties im- 
parted to steel by an addition of platinum; Alloys of platinum and copper. 439 

Golden-yellow alloys of platinum and copper; Composition of alloys used in 
the manufacture of jewelry . . . . . . . . . 440 

Cooper's mirror-metal; Cooper's pen-metal; Palladium alloys; Palladium 
bearing metal ............ 441 

Alloys of palladium and silver; Palladium alloys for bearing metal; Alloys 
of platinum and iridium; Alloy of iridium with osmium; Alloy for watch 
manufacturers . . . . . . . . . ... . 442 

Phosphor-iridium, and process of preparing it . . . . . . 443 

CHAPTER XIX. 

ALLOYS OF MERCUBY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 

Properties of mercury; Amalgams as a means of studying the behavior of 
the metals towards each other . . . . . . . . . 445 

Affinity of metals for mercury; Gold amalgam; Chemical combination of 
gold with mercury ........... 446 

Preparation of an amalgam suitable for fire-gilding; Gold-amalgam contain- 
ing silver, and its preparation ......... 447 

Native gold-amalgam; Silver amalgam; Fire-gilding ..... 448 

Amalgamating water ........ ... 449 

Copper amalgam; Peculiar properties of this amalgam . .... 450 

Directions for preparing copper-amalgam; Vienna metallic cement . . 451 

Dronier's malleable bronze; Tin amalgam; Amalgam for mirrors and look- 
ing glasses ........ .... 452 

Amalgam for coating rubbers of electric machines ..... 453 

Singer's amalgam for coating rubbers of electric machines; Musiv silver; 
Amalgam for tinning; Zinc amalgam; Amalgamation of zinc for voltaic 
cells .............. 454 

Spurious gilding of copper; Cadmium amalgam ..... . 455 

Amalgams for filling teeth; Evans's metallic cement; Amalgams of the " fus- 
ible alloys"; Amalgam of Lipowitz's metal 456 



CONTENTS. XXV11 

PAGE 

Production of impressions of objects of natural history; Manufacture of small 

statuettes; Iron amalgam .......... 457 

Bismuth amalgam ........... 458 

Amalgam for silvering glass globes; Amalgam of bismuth for anatomical 

preparations ............ 459 

Preparation of metallic pencils; Pholin's silver-like alloy; Sodium amalgam. 460 

Rosen feld's process of preparing sodium amalgam; Potassium amalgam . 461 

Nickel amalgam; Platinum amalgam; Mackenzie's amalgam . . . 462 

CHAPTER XX. 

MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

Mixture especially adapted for serving as a protective cover in remelting 
alloys; Alloy for spoons; Alloy resembling German silver; Alloy resem- 
bling silver; Non-oxidizable alloy; Calin; Alloy for moulds for pressed 
glass; New method of preparing alloys ....... 463 

Alloys of indium and gallium 464 

Steel composition; Alloys for drills, chisels, etc. ; Alloys of iron with chro- 
mium, tungsten, molybdenum, etc. ........ 465 

Alloys of copper and iron; Malleable ferro cobalt and ferro-nickel. . . 466 
Bronze resisting acid; Zinc-iron; Alloy which expands on cooling. . . 467 
Spence's metal; Lutecine or Paris metal; Alloys for small patterns in found- 
ries 468 

Alloys for calico-printing rollers; Depierre's and Spiral's researches on this 

subject . 469 

Tables showing the physical properties and chemical composition of calico- 
printing rollers. ........... 470 

Alloys for compensation balances ......... 471 

Black bronze; Sideraphite; Violet-colored alloy; Gold-like alloy . . . 472 
Pyrophorous alloys for illuminating purposes; Alloy for silvering. . . 473 
Robertson alloy for filling teeth; American sleigh bells; Alloy for casting 

small articles; Marlie's non-oxidizable alloy; Alloy for sign-plates . . 474- 
Victor metal; Tempered lead ......... 475 

CHAPTER XXI. 

SOLDER AND SOLDERING. 

Solders in general; Definition of soldering; Varieties of solders; Conditions 
to be observed in soldering ......... 476 

Autogenous soldering; Binding the work in soldering; Binding wire; Hand- 
ling the work in soldering ......... 477 

Soft solders; Pure tin as a solder; Composition of soft solder most frequently 
used; Table of soft solders . . . . . . . . . 478 

Solders for plumber's work, for lead and tin pipes, Britannia metal, etc.; 
Plumbers' sealed solder; Preparation of soft solder ..... 479- 

Judging the quality of a solder; Bismuth solder; Hard solders; Brass solder 480 



XXV111 CONTENTS. 

PAUE 

Preparation of brass solder .......... 481 

Table showing the composition of various kinds of brass solder . . . 483 
Prechtl's brass solders; Brass solders according to Karmarsch; Improved 

hard solder for brass; Argentan solder 484 

Readily fusible argentan solder; Less fusible argentan solder . . . 485 

Solder containing precious metals . 486 

Ordinary hard silver-solder; Brass silver-solder: Soft silver-solder; Hard 

silver-solders ............ 487 

Solders for special work 488 

Silver-solder for cast-iron ; Silver-solder for steel; Flux for hard soldering 

used in Vienna; Gold-solders 489 

Table showing the composition of some gold-solders in general use; Solder 

for enameled work; Refractory solder; More readily fusible solder . . 490 
Fine gold solder; Aluminium gold-solder; Treatment of the various solders 

in soldering; Soldering fluids, etc . . . 491 

Use of dilute mineral acids for pickling the places to be soldered; Soldering 

fluid and its preparation 492 

Soldering fat; Fluxes used in hard soldering; Use of quartz-sand as a flux . 493 
Soldering copper and brass; Table giving the compositions and melting-points 

of solders, and fluxes used . . • 494 

Soldering jewelry: Soldering pan . . 496 



CHAPTER XXII. 

DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS, OF THE IMPTTRI- 
TIES OF THE TECHNICALLY MOST IMPORTANT METALS, ETC. 

Manner of dissolving metals; Characteristics that indicate the presence of 

various metals in the solution ........ 498 

Mode of testing for mercury; Precipitation of metallic sulphides; Apparatus 

for the preparation of sulphuretted hydrogen 499 

Determination of magnesium . 500 

Determination of nickel and cobalt, and of iron, chromium and manganese . 501 
Determination of zinc, alumina, silver, gpld, and platinum .... 502 
Determination of antimony and of tin, bismuth, copper, and cadmium; De- 
termination of arsenic, and Marsh's apparatus for that purpose . . . 503 
Testing brass ............ 504 

Testing Britannia metal; Testing bronze • 505 

Testing German silver; To test gold-ware 506 

Resistance of a few metals and alloys to calcium hydrate .... 507 
To distinguish tin-foil from lead-foil; To test mercury as to its purity; Test- 
ing tin as to its purity; Testing soft solders; To detect lead in tin; Testing 
white metal; Testing nickel . . . • • • • ■ 508 



CONTENTS. XXIX 



PAGE 

APPENDIX. 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 



Lacquers used; Graham's table of lacquers ....... 510 

Mode of obtaining a coating similar to genuine patina upon bronze . . 511 
Production of all shades from the pale-red of copper to a dark chestnut- 
brown ............. 512 

Brown upon copper; Red-brown on copper ....... 513 

Bronzing copper according to Manduit; Coloring copper blue-black; Cuivre 
fume; Black color upon copper; Matt-black on copper; Bronze upon French 
bronze figures ............ 514 

Graham's bronzing liquids . . . . . . . . . . 516 

Lustrous gray or black coating upon articles of brass or bronze . . . 517 
Production of iridescent coatings; Various colors upon small articles of brass; 
Production of a beautiful gold color . . . . . . . . 518 

Beautiful silver color upon brass ......... 519 

Browning liquid for copper; Ebermayer's directions for coloring brass . . 520 
Coloring soft solders; Bronzing of copper, bronze-metal and brass . . 521 

Production of brown bronze color; Bed-brown or copper-brown upon copper; 
Production of green bronze-color; Coloring zinc ..... 522 

Gray, yellow, brown to black colors upon zinc; Bronzing on zinc; Red- 
brown on zinc; Yellow-brown shades on zinc; Browning gun barrels • . 523 
Lustrous black on iron; Durable blue on iron and steel; Brown-black coating 
with bronze luster on iron ...... ... 524 

To give iron a silvery appearance with high luster; Bronze-like patina on 
tin; Warm sepia-brown tone upon tin and its alloys; Oxidizing silver . 525 

RECOVERY OF WASTE METALS. 

Recovery of gold and silver from sweepings and from wash-water in gold- 
workers' shops; Recovery of gold from coloring baths . . . . 526 

Recovery of gold from auriferous fluids; Recovery of gold from old cyanide 
solutions ............. 527 

Separating silver .........:.. 528 

Recovery of silver from old cyanide solutions; Recovery of silver by the wet 

method 529 

Utilization of nickel waste .......... 530 

Recovery of copper; To separate silver from copper; Recovery of tin from 
tin-plate waste . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 

Recovery of brass from a mixture of iron and brass turnings . . . 532 
Index 533 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



CHAPTER I. 



INTRODUCTION. 



A chemical examination of a technically prepared metal 
shows in most cases the presence of smaller or larger quan- 
tities of one or more foreign metals. Thus, in commercial 
iron are nearly always found : Manganese, copper, and fre- 
quently cobalt and nickel; in commercial copper: Iron, lead, 
silver, gold, nickel, antimony and other metals ; in zinc : 
Iron, arsenic, etc. But the presence of these foreign metals 
can with certainty be established only by chemical analysis ; 
they cannot be recognized as independent bodies by the 
eye, nor is it possible to separate them by purely mechan- 
ical means. 

These facts indicate a quite strong endeavor of the metals 
to combine with one another ; and a combination of two or 
more metals in such a manner that the separate metals in 
the combination can no longer be distinguished is called an 
alloy. However, when mercury is one of the metals enter- 
ing into combination, the result, as a rule, is not termed 
an alloy, but an amalgam. 

By alloying a metal with one or more other metals its 
properties are changed in a remarkable manner; the fusing 
point may be lowered, the hardness and strength increased, 
etc. Hence, by properly alloying a metal its properties 
may be so affected as to render it more suitable for the pur- 
pose for which it is to be used ; injurious properties may be 
decreased and desirable ones produced. This is the reason 

(i) 



2 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

why gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and other metals are 
actually more rarely worked in a pure, than in an alloyed, 
state. 

The earliest historical data in reference to the develop- 
ment of the art of preparing, so to say, new metals by 
melting together several metals are very meager, and 
though it appears from several passages in sacred, as well as 
profane, history that no metallic compound was in more 
general use with the ancients than brass, the mode of its 
manufacture is left in obscurity by the historiographers of 
subsequent ages. Pliny says that a flourishing trade in 
brass was carried on in Rome shortly after the founding of 
that city, and that Numa, the immediate successor of Rom- 
ulus, formed all the workers in this alloy into a kind of 
community. 

The Greeks possessed considerable knowledge in the art 
of mixing metals, and knew how to prepare alloys with 
special properties which rendered them suitable for partic- 
ular purposes. They understood, for instance, the prepara- 
tion of alloys which were especially hard, or well adapted 
for casting. The oldest alloys we know of always contain 
copper, which is, no doubt, due to the fact that this metal 
occurs native in many places, and is also readily reduced 
from its ores. Next to alloys containing copper, we find 
those of the noble metals — silver and gold — with a base 
metal, generally copper. 

It is not difficult to explain why the noble metals were 
alloyed in early times with other metals. On the one hand, 
these metals were much more expensive than at the present 
time, and, being subject to considerable wear on account of 
their softness, it was but natural that some one, recognizing 
the great similarity between the heavy metals as regards 
ductility, weight and luster, should have instituted experi- 
ments in order to see how these metals would behave 
towards each other when melted together. Experience 
then showed that by melting together, for instance, a certain 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

quantity of silver with copper, the properties of silver, 
especially its white color, were retained, while the hardness 
and power of resistance of the alloy were considerably in- 
creased. 

There can scarcely be any doubt that the alloys of copper 
with tin, generally called bronze, were the earliest mixtures 
of metals, because zinc, in a metallic state, has only been 
known at a later period, while tin was known in the earliest 
historic times. Next in historical order follow the alloys of 
noble metals with each other, and with copper. Mercury, 
which occurs free in nature, was also known to the ancients, 
and its metallic properties recognized by them, as is evi- 
dent from the name — hydrargyrus (water-silver) — by which 
it was designated. It is certain that compounds of it, 
which, at the present time, are known as amalgams, were 
used by the Greeks and Arabians. From what has been 
said, it would seem likely that the ancients understood the 
art of fire-gilding metallic articles with the assistance of 
gold amalgam ; and, in fact, some old statues which had 
evidently been gilded have been found — the best example 
of it being the statue of the Roman emperor Marcus 
Aurelius, which now stands in front of the capitol at Rome. 

Up to the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne, 
when the development of the technical arts commenced in 
Europe, the only mixtures of metals were the alloys of 
copper, tin, zinc, silver and gold, and some amalgams. 
To prepare other alloys a greater knowledge of chemistry 
was required than that possessed by the early races of 
mankind. The development of chemistry was principally 
due to the Arabs, and especially to those settled in Spain 
— the Moors — who were well learned in the chemical 
sciences and in all branches of natural history, and prob- 
ably well aware of many mixtures of metals still used at the 
present time. At later periods it was alchemy, the vague 
hallucination of making gold from lead and other base 
metals, which prompted men to undertake investigations 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



fruitful of chemical deductions and promotive of a knowl- 
edge of the metals. Many an alchemist found in his 
crucible alloys, which he threw away unsatisfied, because 
they did not possess the properties of the desired gold, but 
which at the present time are profitably used. It may be 
said without exaggeration that modern chemistry would 
not have reached such a degree of excellence if it were not 
for the great abundance of facts collected by the alchemist 
to be marshaled into a science thereafter. 

From what has been said, it will be seen that at the time 
when chemistry as a science did not exist, considerable 
was known in regard to alloys, and we find that in the 
middle ages a large number of mixtures of metals were 
used in the various arts and industries. The preparation 
of the alloys, however, was always affected in a very crude 
manner, but little being known about the definite propor- 
tions in which the metals had to be melted together in 
order to obtain alloys of determined properties. The only 
exception to this were the alloys obtained by the direct 
melting together of the pure metals, for instance, those 
prepared from the noble metals and copper. As is well 
known, everything relating to coinage had reached a con- 
siderable degree of excellence in the middle ages, and the 
fineness of a mixture of metals which was to be used for 
coinage could be determined with considerable accuracy. 

When chemistry entered the ranks of the sciences, the art 
of preparing alloys became a branch of it. The chemists 
gradually investigated all the bodies occurring in nature, 
and showed how from minerals a series of metals could be 
gained, which were not known up to that time. These 
metals were examined as to their intrinsic properties and 
their behavior towards each other, and it was observed 
that a large number of their mixtures possessed properties 
which rendered them suitable for technical purposes. 

Although it may be said that our knowledge of chemistry 
has advanced so far that at present all metals of importance 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

in the arts and industries are known, our knowledge of the 
metals themselves cannot be considered complete, as in 
recent times several new metals have been discovered which 
may become of a certain importance in the preparation of 
alloys. The fact that these metals are at present quite rare 
and that their preparation is connected with great expense, 
is not adverse to this conjecture, since many examples could 
be cited of bodies, for instance, aluminium, which not so 
many years ago were considered expensive rarities, but 
are now produced on a large scale, and used for industrial 
purposes. 

From what has been said, the science of metallic alloys 
must be considered as a branch of knowledge which, though 
brought to a high degree of perfection, is by no means 
complete. It rather opens a wide field for the activity of 
the chemist, and the invention of a new useful alloy belongs 
to the most important and valuable discoveries, since nearly 
every alloy possesses certain specific properties which 
make its application to many branches of industry especi- 
ally valuable. 

From the explanation previously given it is evident that 
an alloy cannot be a mere mechanical mixture of several 
metals, and hence there remains only the possibility of its 
being either a chemical combination or simply a solution 
of one metal in another, similar to a solution of common 
salt in water, of ether in alcohol, of sulphur in carbon disul- 
phide, etc. 

A chemical combination would seem to be indicated by 
the development of heat which takes place when certain 
metals in a fused state are mixed one with the other ; 
further by the frequently considerable variations in the 
physical properties of the alloys from those of their consti- 
tuents (color, specific gravity, fusing point, power of con- 
ducting electricity, etc.); by the crystallizing power of 
many alloys; and finally by the fact that from alloys in a 
liquid state, when heated but little above the fusing point, 



6 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

solid crystals of varying composition are not unfrequently 
separated — Pattinson's desilverizing process of argentiferous 
lead — whereby from the fused lead crystals of an alloy 
poorer in silver may be separated and skimmed off, while 
the lead richer in silver remains behind in a liquid state. 
However, it must be remembered that very similar pro- 
cesses also take place in numerous cases with solutions, 
but with the difference, that solutions are, as a rule, liquid 
at the ordinary temperature, while alloys, almost without 
exception, acquire a fluid form only at a higher tempera- 
ture. On mixing sulphuric acid with water, development 
of heat takes place in all cases and with all proportions of 
weight, without a new hydrate of sulphuric acid being 
formed every time ; the same phenomenon may be observed 
when absolute alcohol is mixed with water, and in many 
other mixtures. However, the physical properties of 
ordinary solutions very frequently vary from those of their 
constituents in the same manner as we are accustomed to 
see in many alloys. If common salt is dissolved in water, 
the specific gravity of the solution is greater, hence the 
volume smaller, than it should be according to calculation 
if a mere mechanical mixture had taken 'place; the same 
phenomenon being exhibited also with solutions of numer- 
ous other salts and liquids, of water with alcohol, with sul- 
phuric acid and many other bodies. On the other hand, it 
frequently occurs that the specific gravity is less and the 
volume greater than according to the average calcula- 
tion, this being the case with most solutions of ammonia 
in water. While the melting point of sodium chloride 
(common salt) lies at about 1112 F. and that of pure 
frozen water at 32 F. solutions of the salt in water solidify 
only at temperatures below 32 F. Numerous other solu- 
tions show a similar behavior. However, on slowly cool- 
ing a common salt solution to below the freezing point, a 
solidified solution poorer in salt is first separated, while 
one richer in salt remains temporarily behind in a fluid 



INTRODUCTION. J 

state ; by continuing the cooling a second separation into 
a solidifying solution poorer in salt and one richer in salt 
remaining behind takes place, and so on. This process is 
used in northern climates for the concentration of the con- 
tent of the salt in sea water, as well as in working poor 
brine, and, in fact, closely resembles the above-mentioned 
Pattinson process of enriching the content of silver in lead. 
In this respect numerous other analogies might be shown ; 
for instance, on solidifying an aqueous solution of alcohol, 
one poorer in alcohol is first separated, and so on. 

From these comparisons it will be seen that the above- 
mentioned properties of alloys are by no means a certain 
proof for their being actual chemical combinations; nor is 
their power of crystallizing always a sure sign of chemical 
union. Although the crystals of alloys occasionally belong 
to another system of crystallization than the crystals of 
each respective separate metal, their composition does not 
always correspond to definite atomic proportions, but fre- 
quently moves within very wide limits. Thus gold-tin 
alloys, with a content of 2j to 43 per cent, of gold, crystal- 
lize in the dimetric system without a composition accord- 
ing to atomic proportions being necessary therefor. Anti- 
mony-zinc alloys in all proportions of from 30 to 70 per 
cent of zinc, yield beautifully formed rhombic prisms or 
octahedrons, etc. As is well known, when solutions, fluid 
at the ordinary temperature, are subjected to freezing, 
crystals are formed in them, the composition of which is 
not always dependent upon chemical atomic proportions, 
but chiefly upon the solidifying temperature, and hence, are 
nothing but solidified solutions, as, for instance, the com- 
mon salt solutions in water, previously mentioned. 

The property of many metals, already referred to, to 
alloy with each other in all desired proportions by weight, 
independent of their chemical atomic weight shows that at 
least not every alloy represents a pure chemical combina- 
tion, but that in most cases a solution of one metal in 



8 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

another, or of one or more chemical combinations, in the 
excess of one of the constituent metals must be present. 
However, it cannot be doubted that as in the case of other 
solutions, actual chemical combinations of separate constit- 
uents of the alloys are under certain influences formed, and 
under altered conditions again disintegrated without the 
nature of the alloy itself being dependent on the presence 
or non-presence of such intimate combinations. Thus, for 
instance, when copper absorbs oxygen, a chemical combin- 
ation of both bodies — cuprous oxide, Cu 2 — is formed, 
which is soluble in the excess of the melted copper and this 
solution must therefore be considered an alloy of copper 
with cuprous oxide. When iron absorbs sulphur, ferrous 
sulphide, FeS, is formed and dissolves in the excess of 
iron. Such cases occur frequently. 

The manner of the above-mentioned combinations will 
depend partly upon the general chemical behavior of the 
metals to one another, partly upon the proportions by 
weight in which the metals are present in the alloy, partly 
upon the aggregate state and, with alloys in a fixed state, 
upon the temperature to which they have been heated 
above these melting points. It is very probable that by 
strong overheating above the melting point, a different 
grouping of the atoms may in some cases take place than 
by less heating, and that during the transposition into the 
solid state, a change in the mutual relations may again take 
place. The time of reciprocal action, the manner of mixing, 
etc., may also be of influence thereby. This explains partly 
the variations which are frequently observed in apparently 
the same alloys when prepared in a different manner, heated 
to different temperatures, or kept in a fluid state for a time 
of varying duration. 

Alloys in a fixed state are therefore essentially solutions 
of two or more metals one in another. Solutions of metal- 
loids in metals also belong to the alloys so long as the 
metallic characteristics — metallic luster, opaqueness, con- 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

ductivity for heat and electricity — have been preserved. In 
fact the boundary between metals and non-metals — metal- 
loids — cannot always be sharply drawn. Many bodies 
which formerly were universally enumerated among the 
metals, and which even now are in industrial life called 
metals, have by reason of their chemical properties been 
transferred by the chemists to the non-metals, as for 
instance, antimony and bismuth. The conception of the 
term alloy is therefore quite a comprehensive one. Lead 
and tin combine with antimony to alloys employed for 
many purposes ; arsenious lead as used for the production 
of shot is simply an alloy of the metal lead with the non- 
metal arsenic. Even iron can from its behavior be only 
considered as an alloy with carbon or silicon. 

While some non-metallic bodies dissolve one in another 
with perfect ease and in all proportions by weight — water 
and alcohol, calcium chloride and water, ether and alcohol 
and many others — others possess this property only to a 
limited extent — water and ether, water and common salt — 
and still others scarcely dissolve one in another at all, but 
when mechanically mixed separate again according to their 
specific gravity — water and oil. A similar variation in the 
power of alloying is also shown by the metals. Some of 
them alloy readily and in every proportion by weight ; 
others only to a limited extent, and some not at all. How- 
ever, it depends also on the temperature, the solubility of the 
metals one in another being not seldom increased by raising 
the temperature above the fusing point, though the re- 
verse happens also. 

A definite general law for the alloying power of metals 
towards each other cannot be laid down. Generally speak- 
ing, it may be said that alloys of a similar chemical be- 
havior alloy, as a rule, with greater ease than when great 
differences exist in this respect. 

Alloys are nearly always formed in a liquid state at a 
temperature more or less above the ordinary one. At the 



IO THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

latter they are solid like the great majority of metals, and 
it is this property which renders them suitable to be used 
for numerous useful articles. Many alloys of mercury — the 
only metal with the exception of gallium which is liquid at 
the ordinary temperature — form, however, an exception. 
They, like the metal itself, solidify only at temperatures 
below o°, but an application of them to the manufacture of 
useful articles has thus far not been found. 

For the production of alloys all the constituents may be 
liquid or only separate ones, the others in a solid state 
being dissolved in them. Just as a lump of common salt dis- 
solves in water of the ordinary temperature — a temperature 
many hundred degrees below the fusing temperature of the 
salt — copper dissolves in melted tin without the latter 
being heated to the fusing point of the former. Silver in 
the same manner dissolves in lead, carbon in iron, and 
there are numerous similar cases. Combination, however, 
takes place more rapidly, when both bodies are in a fused 
state. 

It has previously been mentioned that in combining the 
constituents to alloys, heat is sometimes developed, the 
temperature rising suddenly, while in other cases heat is 
fixed, the temperature being lowered. Development of 
heat, for instance takes place in alloying gold with alumi- 
nium, lead with bismuth ; while heat is consumed in alloying 
lead with tin, and, according to Phipson, to a very consid- 
erable extent, in alloying lead 207 parts, tin 118, bismuth 
284 and mercury 1.6. The development of heat observed 
in alloying two metals is to be sure, not always in conse- 
quence of this process, but is sometimes caused by inci- 
dental processes. Thus, for instance, almost all copper 
contains quite a considerable quantity of cuprous oxide. 
Now, when such copper is alloyed with zinc or aluminium, 
the cuprous oxide is decomposed while a corresponding 
quantity of zinc or aluminium is consumed, and as the gen- 
eration of heat is thereby greater than the consumption of 



INTRODUCTION. II 

heat for the decomposition of the cuprous oxide, heat must 
be liberated. 

There are, however, exceptions to the rule according to 
which alloys are formed in the liquid state. If, for instance, 
copper is exposed to the action of zinc vapors, the two 
metals form an alloy, without fusion being required. Even 
two solid bodies may sometimes alloy, without fusion, by 
intimate contact at a higher temperature, and not only on 
the surface but, if the action is sufficiently prolonged, also 
to greater depths from the surface in consequence of a 
penetration — a molecular migration — whereby the body en- 
tering from the outside is passed from molecule to mole- 
cule. The best known process of this kind is the absorp- 
tion of carbon by iron poor in carbon when heated in 
charcoal or other carbonaceous substances (production of 
steel by cementation). A similar case is the absorption of 
iron by nickel when both metals are heated in contact with 
with each other. However, Spring has shown by experi- 
ments that mixing the bodies in the form of a fine powder 
and exposing the mixture to a very strong pressure is 
sometimes sufficient to eombine them to an actual alloy. 



CHAPTER II. 

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 

Before entering upon a description of the manufac- 
ture of alloys, it will be necessary to give a general re- 
view of the physical and chemical properties of the metals ; 
such knowledge of the elements to be alloyed being re- 
quired in order to proceed according to a determined plan, 
as otherwise satisfactory results could only be obtained by 
a happy accident. 

Most of our readers, no doubt, possess this information ; 
but memory might fail some of them, and some essential, 
though elementary, details may escape others. Neverthe- 
less, a book like this should be complete, and include all 
the rudiments absolutely necessary for the understanding 
of the subject, without the trouble of searching for the 
information in other books. 

The elements are generally divided into two great groups 
viz. metals and non-metals, or metalloids. This classifica- 
tion of the elements dates from a time when a number of 
physical properties were ascribed to the metals, which 
were thought to be peculiar to them and which were con- 
sidered suitable for their distinction from the non-metals. 
Such characteristic and peculiar properties of the metals 
were, for example, their lustre — whence the term " metal- 
lic lustre" — their conductivity for heat and electricity, a 
high specific gravity — exceeding six — opaqueness to light, 
and others. 

It is now known that none of these physical characteris- 
tics belong exclusively to the metals. Iodine, tellurium, 
and graphite possess metallic lustre. Tellurium conducts 

(12) 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF METALS. 13 

heat, and graphite, as well as selenium (in a less degree) 
conducts electricity. On the other hand, metals are known, 
for instance, potassium snd sodium, of which the specific 
gravity is not only less than six, but which are even lighter 
than water. 

The exact meaning of the words metals and non-metals 
cannot be sharply defined, as it is impossible to say what 
properties are exclusively peculiar to the former and what 
to the latter, just as it is impossible to exactly classify any 
series of natural substances. 

For our purposes certain distinctive characteristics of the 
metals to be considered in connection with the manufacture 
of alloys can, however, be given without difficulty. 

a. Physical Relations of the Metals. 

By the term metal is, as a rule, understood in ordinary 
life, a body, which, besides high specific gravity, a char- 
acteristic color, and especially a characteristic lustre, shows 
other definite properties. It is, for instance, frequently 
supposed that all metals possess a high degree of ductility, 
that they are opaque, fuse only at a high temperature, and 
on exposure to the air undergo a slow alteration or, as is 
the case with the so-called noble metals, retain their color 
under all circumstances. 

The properties above named undoubtedly belong to the 
metals ordinarily understood by that term and chiefly used 
in the industries. In considering, however, the bodies 
termed metals from the standpoint of the chemist, we find 
that many of them, which must unquestionably be included 
in that group, show properties differing very much from 
those enumerated above. If we first turn to the ordinary 
well-known metals, we find them distinguished by a char- 
acteristic lustre, termed metallic lustre, this property being 
even possessed in a very high degree by such metals as ap- 
pear entirely lusterless in consequence of their chemical 
properties (i. e., in contact with the air). If a lump of lead 



14 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



be cut across with a knife, the fresh surface shows a beauti- 
ful luster, but will very speedily tarnish by the lead under- 
going a rapid alteration on exposure to the air. 

Besides high specific gravity and metallic luster, other 
general properties are ordinarily ascribed to metals, promi- 
nent among which is malleability. It is, however, well 
known to every one handling metals that they manifest 
great variations in capacity for extension under the hammer 
or between rollers. Some of them, like gold and silver, 
may be obtained in exceedingly thin leaves, while others, 
like antimony and bismuth, appear to be perfectly unmalle- 
able. Similar differences are noticeable in the ductility of 
the metals ; some of them can be drawn out into very fine 
wire, while others are altogether destitute of ductility. 

Even the property of opaqueness belongs only condition- 
ally to the metals, for gold and silver are translucent in 
thin plates, the former transmitting green rays and the 
latter blue rays, though none of the other metals have been 
obtained in sufficiently thin leaves to allow of the transmis- 
sion of light. 

It will thus be seen that the properties of metals vary 
very much from those ordinarily ascribed to them, and the 
same must be said in regard to their fusibility. While 
some fuse at a low temperature — even below that of boil- 
ing water — others melt only at a red heat, a strong red, or 
a white heat. The temperatures corresponding to differ- 
ent colors are explained in the following table by Pouillet : 



Incipient red heat corresponds to 977° F. 



Dull red 

Incipient cherry-red 

Cherry-red 

Clear cherry-red 

Deep orange 

Clear orange 

White 

Bright white 

Dazzling white 



1202° F. 
1472 F. 
1652 F. 
1832 F. 

2012° F. 

2192° F. 
2372 F. 
2552° F. 
2732 F. 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF METALS. 1 5 

Certain of the metals soften before actual fusion takes 
place, so that they can be hammered or welded into com- 
pact masses. 

There are, however, some points in which all the metals 
to be here discussed agree. 

They are distinguished by great weight, lead, iron, gold 
and platinum being representatives of those prominent in 
this respect. 

They are, as a rule, very ductile bodies, copper, silver, 
gold, etc., being representatives of this group. Others 
like zinc, antimony, and bismuth, which have by some 
chemists been classed among the metalloids, show, how- 
ever, a high degree of brittleness. 

With the exception of mercury and gallium, they are all 
solids at the ordinary temperature, and become liquid only 
at higher temperatures. 

They are, without exception excellent conductors of heat 
and electricity, that is, they rapidly absorb them, but just 
as rapidly yield them up again. 

Finally it remains to be remarked that the metals show 
considerable differences in regard to specific gravity, duc- 
tility, conductivity, etc., which will be referred to in speak- 
ing of the special properties of the metals available for 
alloys. 

b. Chemical Relations of the Metals. 

Chemically, the metals are distinguished by their ability 
to form combinations with the non-metallic elements ; the 
combinations with the oxygen of the air being especially 
energetic. The affinity of the different metals for oxygen, 
however, varies greatly, the majority of the metals used in 
ordinary life combining with it at an ordinary temperature. 
This phenomenon can be readily observed on the pre- 
viously mentioned lump of lead. The fresh surfaces lose 
their luster by the lead combining with the oxygen from 
the air, which gives rise to a coating of oxide. Copper, 



16 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

having less affinity for oxygen, remains bright for some 
time, and then acquires a brown-red coloring, which is also 
due to the formation of a layer of oxide. Many other 
metals remain bright at an ordinary temperature, and only 
lose their characteristic luster by oxidation taking place at a 
higher temperature — this last phenomenon being, for in- 
stance, observed with tin and antimonial metals which be- 
come oxidized by heating. In ordinary language all metals 
losing their metallic luster at an ordinary temperature or 
by heating are termed base metals, while the term noble 
metals is applied to those which have so little affinity for 
oxygen that they cannot be induced directly to unite with 
it even at high temperatures. The number of noble metals 
is very small in comparison with that of the base metals 
and of those more frequently used ; mercury, silver, gold 
and platinum only can be actually counted among them. 

From what has been said, it will been seen that the 
metals may be divided according to their behavior towards 
oxygen, such a division being in fact well supported, as we 
will have occasion to demonstrate in the course of our ex- 
planation. 

In a chemical sense, the metals can be further divided 
with reference to certain physical properties into heavy and 
light metals. There is a series of metals whose specific 
gravity is so small that they float upon water, that of some 
of them being not greater than ordinarily exhibited by glass. 
Chemists term such metals light metals, in contradistinction 
to those which are distinguished by great weightiness. 

The properties of the light and heavy metals allow, how- 
ever, of an easy separation as regards their chemical rela- 
tions, and, by taking these relations into consideration, the 
result will be a suitable division of the metals into deter- 
mined groups which, together with their special properties, 
will be mentioned. 

The metals belonging to the group of light metals have 
a very low specific gravity, which does not exceed four 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF METALS. 1J 

(the weight of a volume of water being always taken as a 
unit). These metals find but a limited application by them- 
selves, most of them having such strong affinity for oxygen 
as to be very speedily converted into oxide on coming in 
contact with the air. Only two of them, magnesium and 
aluminium, form an exception in this respect, and are, 
therefore, used in the arts and industries though the former 
only to a limited extent. According to their occurrence, 
these metals are divided into several groups, viz. : Metals 
of the alkalies, metals of the alkaline earths, and metals of 
the earths. To the metals of the alkalies belong potassium, 
sodium and lithium. Potassium and sodium are lighter 
than water, and lithium is only about one half as heavy. 
The metals of the alkalies are characterized by their 
strong chemical affinities for negative elements, and are 
therefore well adapted for withdrawing oxygen, sulphur, 
chlorine, etc., from combination with other elements. 
They belong to our most powerful reducing agents. 

The metals of alkaline earths have nearly the same prop- 
erties as the metals of the alkalies, but their affinity for 
oxygen, though very considerable, is somewhat less. 
Chemists include in this group calcium, occurring in gypsum, 
limestones and many other minerals ; barium, contained in 
heavy spar ; and strontium, the principal natural-occurring 
compounds of which are the sulphate, or celestite, and the 
carbonate, or strontianite. Like the alkali metals, the 
metals of the alkaline earths do not find a direct application 
in the industries, their great affinity for oxygen rendering 
such use impossible. 

The metals of the earths occur in many minerals, and a 
large number of metals belonging to this group are known, 
but only two of them — aluminium, occurring in alum, 
clay, feldspar, and a large number of other minerals, and 
magnesium, found in dolomite, etc. — have any claim to our 
attention on the ground of their technical importance. 
Their affinity for oxygen is not so energetic as that of the 
2 



l8 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

other metals of this group, since both can be kept in con- 
tact with dry air without entering into combination with 
oxygen, aluminium even retaining its luster for a compara- 
tively long time. 

All light metals have, however, the property of readily 
decomposing water, the metals of the alkalies and metals 
of the alkaline earths effecting this at an ordinary tempera- 
ture. When a piece of potassium is thrown upon water, a 
vigorous development of hydrogen immediately takes place. 
The metal melts in consequence of the heat liberated by the 
chemical process, and the developed hydrogen ignites. 
The metal combines immediately with the oxygen to potas- 
sium oxide, which dissolves in water. After the combus- 
tion of the potassium, a colorless globule, consisting of the 
melted potassium oxide, floats upon the surface of the 
water. With a peculiar fizzing noise this globule suddenly 
bursts into pieces, which speedily dissolve in the water to 
potassium hydroxide. 

The metals of the earths act less energetically on meeting 
with water, though they decompose it at a boiling heat; 
magnesium, for instance, when strongly heated in contact 
with air, burns freely, light and heat being developed. 

The heavy metals, i. e., those which are chiefly used in 
ordinary life, can, according to their chemical behavior, be 
brought into four well-defined groups, the group into 
which each metal is to be placed depending on its behavior 
in contact with steam or with water in the presence of an 
acid. In reference to this we distinguish the following 
groups : — 

i. Metals which decompose water at the ordinary tem- 
perature in the presence of an acid, and which possess the 
further property of decomposing water at a higher temper- 
ature (at a red heatj. To this group belong iron, zinc, 
nickel, cobalt, chromium, cadmium, tin and a few rarer 
metals. 

2. Metals which decompose water at the temperature of 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF METALS. IO. 

a red heat, but lack the property of decomposing water in 
the presence of an acid. Of the more important metals, 
only antimony and tungsten belong to this group. 

3. Metals which are incapable of sensibly decomposing 
water either at a red heat or in the presence of an acid, and 
are entirely indifferent towards it at an ordinary tempera- 
ture. The metals belonging to this group, of which bis- 
muth, lead, copper and mercury are representatives, possess, 
however, the property of oxidizing when heated red-hot in 
contact with air. 

4. Noble metals are, finally, such as do not combine with 
oxygen when strongly heated in contact with air, and at a 
red heat remain entirely indifferent towards water. Silver, 
gold, and platinum are the most important of the metals 
belonging to this group. 

Besides the metals enumerated in the preceding groups, 
there are a number of others, which, according to their be- 
havior, belong to one or the other. But, as previously 
mentioned, these metals are of no technical importance, 
being on account of their rarity too expensive to be used for 
industrial purposes. Moreover, it may here be remarked 
that among the enumerated metals are some, for instance, 
cobalt and tungsten, wdiose application in the industries is 
very limited, though they can he procured in large quanti- 
ties. A more extensive use may, however, be found for 
them in the future, as has been the case with nickel, with 
which nothing could be done for a long time, but which is 
now used in large quantities for electro-plating and, in the 
preparation of very important alloys. 

While certain metals possess the property of considerably 
hardening other softer and more ductile metals, certain 
non-metallic bodies exert a still greater influence upon the 
properties of a metal. It will, therefore, be necessary 
briefly to consider these bodies. 

Carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and arsenic are the most 
prominent of the non-metallic bodies which are capable of 



20 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

changing to a considerable degree the properties of a metal, 
and "these bodies being much used for that purpose in the 
industries, we will have to consider their combinations with 
the metals, though they do hot belong to the actual alloys. 

The exceedingly great influence exerted by these bodies 
upon the properties of metals, even if admixed only in very 
small quantities, is best shown by the behavior of iron. 

Pure iron, such as is used for piano strings or good shoe 
nails, is a metal of great hardness and extraordinary 
tenacity, which can only be fused at the highest tempera- 
ture capable of being produced in our furnaces. It con- 
tains at the utmost one-half per cent, of foreign substances, 
consisting of varying quantities of manganese, silicon, and 
carbon. But iron containing a quantity of foreign sub- 
stances amounting to i^ per cent, of which carbon consti- 
tutes the greater portion, shows entirely different proper- 
ties and is termed steel. 

As is well known, the properties of steel are quite differ- 
ent from those of iron. It is harder, more elastic, and 
more tenacious, and fuses somewhat more readily. By still 
further increasing the carbon in the iron to about three per 
cent., we have what is known as cast-iron. It is more 
fusible than steel, but brittle, and cannot be worked under 
the hammer (it cracks). According to the content of car- 
bon, it shows a gray to nearly white color (gray and white 
cast-iron) and a crystalline structure. 

A content of sulphur or phosphorus exerts a still greater 
effect upon the properties of iron than one of carbon. 
Iron, containing but a few thousandths of sulphur, can 
only be worked in the heat; if hammered in the "cold" it 
cracks; it having become what is termed "cold-short," 
i. e., brittle when cold. With a still smaller content of 
phosphorus, the iron cannot be worked with the hammer, 
even at red heat, and at a white heat cracks under the 
hammer; it having become "red-short" or "hot-short." 
The admixture of these bodies (carbon, sulphur, and phos- 



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF METALS. 21 

phorus) with the metals is frequently an unintentional one, 
it being due to the nature of the ores used. 

Before proceeding with the description of the properties 
of the alloys and the manner of their manufacture, it will 
be convenient in order to avoid unnecessary repetition later 
on to give a short sketch of the special properties of the 
separate metals. As previously mentioned, some metals 
can be readily combined according to certain fixed propor- 
tions. In such case we have not alloys in the actual sense 
of the word (i. e., mixtures of metals), but rather chemical 
combinations. 

By a chemical combination is understood the union of 
two or more simple elements in unalterable proportions or 
multiples thereof. Each element possesses the property of 
combining with the other according to a proportion of 
weight admitting of no variation whatever, and the quan- 
tity of weight which enters into the combination, and is 
capable of so completely invalidating the properties of the 
other bodies that, so to say, a new body is formed, is 
termed the atomic or indivisible weight. The names of the 
most important elements are given in the annexed table, 
together with their symbols and atomic weights, which ex- 
press the proportions in which they combine together, or 
simple multiples of those proportions. The symbols are 
formed of the first letters of their names derived either 
from the Latin or Greek. Hydrogen is, for instance, repre- 
sented by the letter H, from the word hydrogenium; 
Oxygen by O from oxygenium; Silver by Ag, from argen- 
tum. If Latin or Greek names of several elements have 
the same first letters, the first letter serves only for the 
designation of one of these elements, while for the other 
elements the first letter is supplemented by an additional 
characteristic letter. Thus, for instance, Boron is repre- 
sented by the letter B ; Barium by Ba ; Bismuth by Bi ; 
Bromine by Br. 



22 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Name of 
Element. 



Aluminium. 
Antimony. . 

Arsenic 

Barium 
Bismuth . . . 

Boron 

Bromine . . . 
Cadmium . . 
Calcium. . . . 
Carbon 
Chlorine . . . 
Chromium . 

Cobalt 

Copper 

Fluorine . . . 
Gallium 

Gold 

Hydrogen . . 

Indium 

Iodine 

Iron 

Lead 



■ 
Symbol. 


1 
Atomic 
Weight. 


Al 


27.04 


Sb 


119. 6 


As 


74-9 


Ba 


136.9 


Bi 


207.5 


B 


10.9 


Br 


79-76 


Cd 


in. 7 


Ca 


39-9 


C 


11.97 


CI 


35-4 


Cr 


52.4 


Co 


58.6 


Cu 


63.18 


Fl 


19.06 


Ga 


69.8 


Au 


196.2 


H 


1.0 


In 


113.4 


I 


126.54 


Fe 


55-88 ] 


Pb 


206.4 

1 



Name of 
Element. 



Magnesium . 
Manganese . 
Mercury 
Molybdenum 

Nickel 

Nitrogen . . . 
Osmium 

Oxygen 

Phosphorus . 
Platinum 
Potassium . . 
Selenium. . . . 

Silicon 

Silver 

Sodium 

Sulphur 

Tin 

Titanium 

Tungsten. . . . 
Uranium 
Vanadium . . . 
Zinc 



s ^-.w53£ 



Mg 

Mn 

Hg 

Mo 

Ni 

N 

Os 

O 

P 

Pt 

K 

Se 

Si 

Ag 

Na 

S 

Sn 
Ti 
W 

u 

V 
Zn 



23.94 
54-8 

199.88 
96.0 
58.6 
14.01 

191 .0 
15.96 
30.96 

I94.3I 
39.03 
78.87 
28.0 

107.06 
23.0 
31.96 

H7-35 

48.1 

184.0 

239-5 

Si.i 



The symbols not only represent the elementary bodies 
but also their fixed quantities by weight, namely their 
atomic weights, so that, for instance, the symbol Ni means 
58.6 parts by weight of nickel. 

Compounds produced by the union of the elements are 
represented by placing their corresponding symbols to- 
gether and designating them chemical formulas. Thus, for 
instance, common salt consists of one atom sodium (Na) 
and one atom chlorine (CI) and hence its formula has to 
be written NaCl. The latter shows that one molecule of 
common salt consists of 23 parts by weight of sodium and 
35.4 parts by weight of chlorine, which together form 58.4 
parts by weight of common salt. If several atoms of an 
element are present in a compound, this is denoted by 
numbers which are attached to the symbol of the atom. 
Water consists of two atoms hydrogen (H) and one atom 
oxygen (O), and hence its formula is H 2 0, which shows that 
two parts by weight of hydrogen, together with 15.96 parts 
by weight of oxygen form 17.96 parts by weight of water. 



CHAPTER III. 

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 

a. Metals of the alkalies. The strong attraction of the 
metals of the alkalies, and especially of potassium, for 
oxygen, makes it impossible for them to occur in the free 
state in nature. Potassium is chiefly found in the mineral 
kingdom in combination with oxygen and silica as a silicate, 
and in this form is a constituent of potash feldspar ; it also 
occurs, united with chlorine, as potassium chloride. 

Nearly all land plants require potassium compounds for 
their growth, and even for their existence. These potassium 
compounds are absorbed by their roots and converted in 
their structure into potassium salts of organic acids. When 
the plants are burned nearly the whole of the potassium 
which they contain remains behind as potassium carbonate. 
This was formerly the material from which potassium com- 
pounds were almost exclusively prepared. 

Sodium, which is closely allied to potassium is also found 
in nature in the form of a double silicate of aluminium 
as soda feldspar or albite. It further occurs as the mineral 
cryolite, which is worked both for soda and alumina. But 
by far its most important natural compound is the chloride — 
common salt or rock salt. 

Both these metals can be prepared in large quantities by 
treating their carbonate — potassium carbonate or sodium 
carbonate — with charcoal and chalk in iron retorts at a 
white heat. They are brilliant-white with a high degree of 
luster. At an ordinary temperature they are soft and may 
be easily cut with a knife. They have a very low melting 
point, potassium melting completely at 144.5 F., and sod- 

(•23) 



24 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ium at 207. 5 F. Exposed to the air both metals rapidly 
oxidize, and must, therefore, be preserved under a fluid 
containing no oxygen (petroleum,). In consequence of 
these properties neither potassium nor sodium can be used 
in the industries, and serve only for the indirect prepara- 
tion of some metals. For instance, by a combination of 
alumina and chlorine with potassium or sodium, the latter, 
in consequence of their stronger affinity for chlorine, with- 
draw it from the combination, whereby metallic aluminium 
is liberated. Several other metals can be prepared in a 
similar manner. 

Lithium is a rare element, and of no technical importance. 
Some of its compounds find extensive use in medicine. It 
is widely distributed in nature and is found, though always 
in small quantities, in several minerals, as well as in numer- 
ous mineral springs. 

b. Metals of the alkaline earths. To this group belong, 
besides calcium, occurring in limestone, gypsum, and 
several other minerals, barium and strontium. The affinity 
of these metals for oxygen is so great, that like potassium 
and sodium, they have to be kept under petroleum, and are 
not used in the form of metals in the industries. 

c. Metals of the earths proper. The most important of 
this group is aluminium (Al ; atomic weight 27.04). It is 
a white metal very nearly approaching silver in appearance. 
It melts at a red heat, about 1300 F., but will not vaporize. 
It changes very little at the ordinary temperature, or even 
when moderately heated, but if heated in a stream of oxy- 
gen it burns brightly. Nitric acid does not effect alumin- 
ium, sulphuric acid only dissolves it on boiling, while it is 
readily soluble in hydrochloric acid. But the action of 
these acids is greatly modified by the purity of the metal 
and also by the mechanical conditions under which the 
metal has been prepared, hammered aluminium being least 
attacked, rolled metal next, and then the drawn metal, 
while cast metal is much more easily attacked than either. 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 25 

Caustic alkalies in solution readily attack aluminium ; in 
ammonia it is turned gray, but does not lose strength or 
weight. Chlorine, bromine, iodine and fluorine attack 
aluminium and corrode it. It is, however, not affected by 
sulphuretted hydrogen or other sulphur vapors. 

The specific heat of aluminium is, according to Richards, 
0.2270, water being i.oooo, that is, the same quantity of 
heat that would raise a mass of aluminium 0.2270 of a 
degree C, would raise the same mass of water 1.0000 full 
degree C. 

The conductivity of heat, taking silver as 100, is 38 for 
unannealed wire of 98.52 per cent, aluminium, and 38.90 in 
the same wire annealed. The following table enables us to 
compare its conductivity with that of other metals : 

Silver, 100. Tin, 14.5. 

Copper. 73.6. Iron, 11. 9. 

Gold, 53.2. Steel, n. 6. 

Annealed aluminium, 38.9. Platinum, 8. 6. 

Unannealed aluminium, 38.0. Bismuth, 1.8. 

The electric conductivity of aluminium, as compared with 
copper, has been determined by Mr. C. K. McGee, of the 
University of Michigan. He found that in an aluminium 
unannealed wire 0.0325 inch in diameter the electrical re- 
sistance was 0.05749 " legal ohms " of one yard, while that 
of pure copper wire of same diameter was only 0.03150; 
temperature 57 F. In the annealed aluminium wire of 
same dimensions it was 0.05484. The aluminium was 
98.52 per cent. pure. Pure aluminium shows no polarity. 
An ingot of aluminium containing 1.5 per cent, iron showed 
a very faint polarity; with two per cent, iron the polarity 
was distinct and very decidedly marked. 

Aluminium has become- important only within a few years 
past. Forty years ago it was as much a chemical curiosity 
as any one of the rare metals is to-day. Through the 
efforts of H. St. Claire Deville it first acquired a com- 
mercial character, and its extraction was transferred from 



26 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the sphere of laboratory experiment to become a metal- 
lurgical process. 

Aluminium is the most widely distributed metal on earth. 
It is never found in the metallic state, but always combined 
with oxygen, and in this form, A1 2 3 , is the basis of many 
of the commonest rocks and the chief constituent of most 
clays. It is found in porphyries, igneous rocks, and in 
connection with quartz in granite, gneiss, mica, schist, 
syenite, and some sandstones, while sapphire and ruby con- 
sist exclusively of it. 

Aluminium was formerly prepared as follows : The double 
chloride of sodium and aluminium was first prepared by 
heating a mixture of alumina, common salt and charcoal in 
a stream of chlorine, ioo parts of the sublimed double 
chloride were next mixed with 35 parts of sodium and 40 
parts of cryolite (to serve as a flux), and heated on the 
hearth of a reverberatory furnace. The aluminium was 
then reduced and collected on the hearth under the fused 
slag. 

However, so long as aluminium could be prepared only 
by the reduction of its chloride by means of sodium, its use 
for other purpose, besides the manufacture of expensive 
fancy articles, was out of the question. But since the efforts 
to reduce A1 2 3 by means of a current of electricity have 
been successful, the price of the metal has been sufficiently 
low to allow of its being used for technical purposes. 

The principle of reduction by electrolysis is that alumina 
is decomposed in the presence of a melted fluoride by the 
electric current, and metallic aluminium is liberated. The 
process of manufacture, as conducted by the Pittsburgh 
Reduction Company of Pittsburgh, Pa., is the invention of 
Charles M. Hall, and consists essentially in dissolving alu- 
mina in a melted bath composed of the fluoride of some 
metal more electro-positive than aluminium ; passing an 
electric current through the melted mass, and the produc- 
tion of aluminium by electrolysis of the dissolved alumina ; 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 



27 



the fluorides of sodium and calcium with the fluoride of 
aluminium being the preferable salts used in the melted bath, 
although the fluorides of aluminium and sodium have been 
used successfully alone, without the fluoride of calcium, in 
some of their commercial work. The fluoride bath mate- 
rial, when melted, is almost permanent ; the only loss being- 
small mechanical loss of material sticking to the pokers and 
ladles, and a very small loss from volatilization, when the 
process is working correctly. Fresh fluoride bath material 
is more or less impure, containing oxides of silicon and 
iron, in the form of quartz, sand and spathic iron, and these 
metals are alloyed with the first aluminium produced in the 
new bath, as all of the silicon and iron are reduced before 
almost any aluminium is reduced, and the first metal pro- 
duced contains nearly all these impurities from the melted 
fluoride salts. 

Commercial aluminium is frequently contaminated by 
foreign metals. The following analyses show the composi- 
sition of various kinds of commercial aluminium : 





I. 


II. 


III. 

96.253 
0-454 
3-293 

trace 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


Aluminium 

Silicon 

Iron 

Copper 

Lead 

Sodium 


88.35 
2.87 
2.40 
6.38 

trace 


92.969 
2.149 
4.882 

trace 


92.00 
o-4S 

7-55 


92-5 
0.7 

6.8 


96.16 
0.47 
3-37 


94-7 
3-7 
1.6 


97.20 
0.25 
2.40 







A content of iron in aluminium is very injurious, it ren- 
dering the metal uncommonly hard. However, the varie- 
ties of aluminium prepared by electrolysis are, as a rule, 
quite pure, copper being the chief impurity contained in 
them. The greatest value of aluminium, perhaps, is in the 
wonderful alloys it is capable of producing. They are ex- 
ceedingly numerous, and the range of proportions of the in- 
gredients to produce useful alloys is very wide. In a gen- 
eral way, aluminium may be said to improve the qualities of 



28 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

every metal to which it is added in small quantities ; increas- 
ing the strength. The most important alloys are the alloys 
with copper. These form a striking series, of which the 
alloy of 10 per cent, of aluminium and 90 per cent, of cop- 
per is the most prominent. These and other alloys of alu- 
minium will be described later on. 

Magnesium (Mg; atomic weight 23.94). This element, 
in a state of combination, occurs widely distributed, and is 
found in a great variety of minerals. It is met with as 
hydrate, carbonate, chloride, bromide, sulphate, phosphate, 
and nitrate ; it exists in large numbers of bodies in com- 
bination with silica, as, for example, in hornblende, augite, 
talc, soapstone, asbestos, etc. It is found in many mineral 
waters ; sea water containing considerable quantities of the 
chloride and sulphate. 

The metal was isolated by Davy in 1808, and is now pre- 
pared on a considerable scale, either by separating it from 
its chloride with the assistance of the electric current, or 
from its double combinations of magnesium chloride with 
calcium chloride, or of magnesium fluoride with sodium 
fluoride by means of sodium. 

Magnesium, in a. pure state, possesses a silvery white 
color and acquires a high luster by polishing. Its specific 
gravity is 1.743. Its hardness is nearly that of calcite. At 
the ordinary temperature it is somewhat brittle, but at a 
red heat it is malleable, and scarcely more ductile than 
zinc. Recent experiments have shown that its tensile 
strength is higher than that of aluminium and brass, and 
nearly equal to that of bronze or of Delta metal. In dry 
air it does not change and does not lose its luster; in 
moist air it soon becomes coated with a white layer of 
magnesium hydrate ; but as the latter is very coherent, this 
alteration does not extend beyond the surface. Its fusing 
point is generally given at about 932 F., but, according to 
Victor Meyer, it is much higher. It fuses with greater 
difficulty than sodium bromide, and is nearly as fusible as 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 20, 

sodium carbonate, the latter melting at 1482 F. When 
heated to somewhat above its fusing point it burns, similar, 
to zinc, with an intensely bright white light, rich in chem- 
ically active rays. The preparation of magnesium alloys is 
connected with great difficulties on account of the oxidiz- 
ability of the metal. The alloys may be obtained by melt- 
ing the metals together in a current of hydrogen, or under 
fluxes of fluorspar and common salt or cryolite ; or, 
according to White, the other constituent metal is fused 
and the magnesium quickly immersed by means of tongs. 
According to Parkinson, magnesium furnishes alloys with 
sodium, mercury, tin, cadmium, bismuth, lead, zinc, anti- 
mony, silver, platinum, gold, copper and aluminium ; it 
alloys also with copper and nickel when combined, but not 
with iron, cobalt or nickel. The color of the white metals 
combined with magnesium is not essentially affected, except 
when the content of magnesium is very large, as is certain 
alloys with tin, silver and lead. All magnesium alloys are 
very brittle, tarnish more or less in the air, and decompose 
water more or less readily. 

With potassium and sodium, magnesium yields malleable 
alloys which decompose water at the ordinary temperature. 
Eighty-five parts tin and 15 parts magnesium give a 
lavender-blue, hard, brittle alloy, which also decomposes 
water. 

With mercury magnesium does not amalgamate at the 
ordinary temperature, but by shaking magnesium with 
mercury in dilute sulphuric acid, amalgamation takes place 
(Hartley and Phipson, and J. Parkinson). By heating 
magnesium with mercury to nearly the boiling point of the 
latter, amalgamation also takes place under violent reaction 
Such an amalgam, containing 1 part magnesium and 200 
parts mercury, on exposure to the air becomes immediately 
dull and swells up ; it decomposes water as vigorously as 
sodium amalgam (Wanklyn and Chapman). Magnesium 
also combines with lead and zinc, alloys with 5 to 20 per 



30 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cent, being suitable for fireworks, and may, for instance, in 
the form of powder, be added to rocket charges. With 
thallium, magnesium combines in all proportions, alloys 
with 5 to 25 per cent, thallium, burning with a steady and 
bright flame, whereby the intense magnesium light sup- 
presses the green color of the thallium, which is only 
slightly noticeable even with 50 per cent, thallium. 

According to Holtz, expectations regarding the technical 
availability of magnesium alloys have not been fulfilled. 
Iron, steel, copper, brass and bronze are not rendered 
malleable and softer by an addition of magnesium, but 
brittle. 

d. Heavy metals, To this group belong the metals of 
the most importance to the industries. They are divided 
according to their chemical behavior into several sub-divis- 
ions, named after the most common metal occurring in 
them. We speak, therefore, of a zinc group, an iron 
group, a silver group, etc., and this division will here be 
retained, it being very suitable to make clear the connec- 
tion existing between certain minerals. 

1. Iron Group. 

(Iron, Manganese, Cobalt, Nickel, Chromium, Uranium.) 

Among the metals belonging to this group, iron is most 
widely distributed and most frequently used. It forms, 
however, but a small number of alloys available in the in- 
dustries. Nevertheless, on close examination it will be 
found that many alloys contain a small quantity of iron, 
which, however, has not been added intentionally, but is 
simply a contamination of the metals constituting the alloy. 
But, as we shall see later on, a very small quantity of a 
metal frequently suffices to exert considerable influence 
upon the physical properties of an alloy. 

Iron (Fe., atomic weight 55.88). Native iron is of ex- 
ceedingly rare occurrence, but it enters into the composi- 
tion of those curious stones which have fallen to the earth 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 3 1 

from space, and are known as meteorites. All iron pre- 
pared on a commercial scale contains carbon, the purest 
being wrought iron with about 0.15 per cent, carbon, then 
steel with from 0.15 to J. 5 per cent., and cast-iron with 
upwards of 1.5 per cent. In a general way it may be said 
that the properties of the various grades of iron depend 
upon the varying proportions of carbon present, and hence, 
in this sense, iron may be considered an alloy with carbon. 
Silicon and manganese also are sometimes present, not as 
incidental, but as intentional constituents. The preparation 
of such varieties of iron, however, belongs more particularly 
to the metallurgy of iron proper. 

Chemically pure iron may be obtained by reducing per- 
oxide of iron by hydrogen at a red heat, or by remelting 
the purest varieties of malleable iron with an oxidizing flux 
in order to remove the last traces of combined carbon. 
The physical properties of the metal vary very considerably 
according to the means adopted for its production. When 
obtained by reducing peroxide of iron by hydrogen at the 
lowest possible temperature at which the change can be 
effected (according to Magnus between 6oo° and 700 F.) 
it forms a dark-gray powder, which combines energetically 
with oxygen, taking fire spontaneously when slightly 
heated and thrown into the air. When, however, the re- 
duction takes place at a higher temperature, the metallic 
powder agglutinates to a sponge of filamentous texture, a 
silvery-gray color, and metallic luster which is no longer 
pyrophoric. 

Larger and more compact masses may be obtained by 
removing the last traces of carbon and other foreign sub- 
stances from the purest commercial wrought iron in the 
following manner : A small quantity of good wrought iron 
such as pianoforte wire or Russian black plate, cut up 
into small pieces, and either rusted by exposure to steam 
or mixed with about 20 per cent, of pure peroxide of iron, 
is to be melted under glass free from metallic oxides, in a 



32 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

refractory crucible, at a strong white heat, the operation 
requiring about an hour's full heat of a good wind furnace. 
The small quantity of carbon present in the metal is ex- 
pended in reducing a portion of the sesquioxide, the re- 
mainder passing into the slag. The result is a brilliant well- 
melted button of metal, which exhibits a decidedly crystalline 
structure, similar to that observed in meteorites when the lat- 
ter are treated with an etching liquor, and is somewhat softer, 
but less tenacious than the iron originally employed. This 
last method of producing pure iron is recommended for ex- 
perimenting in the preparation of alloys with iron, though, 
if too troublesome, the best quality of pianoforte wire will 
answer the purpose. 

Iron oxidizes very readily ; in a damp atmosphere the rust 
has a very destructive action, and necessitates the employ- 
ment of varnishes and other preservative coatings. In the 
melted state or at a red heat, iron in contact with the air 
oxidizes rapidly, arid acids attack it and dissolve it with 
ease. 

Iron alloys readily and in all proportions by weight with 
manganese, chromium, tungsten, titanium, vanadium, 
nickel, cobalt, gold, platinum, aluminium, antimony, tin; 
with greater difficulty with larger quantities of copper, 
though smaller quantities of the the latter are readily ab- 
sorbed by iron, and smaller quantities of iron by copper. 
It alloys with zinc only in limited proportions. Acicular 
zinc crystals contained, according to Erdmann, in addition 
to 93.2 per cent, zinc, 6.5 per cent, iron and 0.3 per cent, 
lead. Small prismatic crystals, examined by Abel, con- 
tained. 7.45 per cent, zinc besides 91.80 per cent, iron and 
0.75 per cent, lead, On the other hand, a more refractory 
and specificially heavier alloy containing as a rule 3 to 5 
per cent, of iron is formed on the bottom of iron pots in 
which zinc is for a long time kept in a liquid state. 

In refining zinc, for which purpose it is kept for a long 
time in a liquid state in a reverberatory furnace or pot, an 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 33 

alloy is separated which may contain 6.3 per cent, of iron, 
and by dissolving iron in melted zinc heated to a red heat, 
an alloy with 8.5 per cent, of iron may be produced. Since 
on being more strongly heated the zinc volatilizes, it may 
be assumed that this is the limit of iron which can be taken 
up by zinc. However, according to Snelus, 12 per cent.- of 
iron may be dissolved in zinc if the iron be added in the 
form of powder, and the solubility is increased by the ad- 
dition of arsenic to the zinc. With 2.25 per cent, arsenic 
the alloy may take up 14.15 per cent of iron. 

Iron also alloys only to a limited extent with bismuth, 
and, under ordinary conditions not at all with lead and 
silver. In iron blast furnaces in which plumbiferous iron 
is worked, the lead together with all the silver is obtained 
completely separated from the iron. 

Iron alloys are of no technical importance, except the 
combinations of iron with nickel, tungstem, chromium, 
vanadium and manganese, which play a role in working 
crude iron and especially in the preparation of steel ; further 
combinations with tin and zinc which have to be considered 
in tinning and galvanizing iron ; and finally in the prepara- 
tion of ferriferous brass (Delta metal) and of iron contain- 
ing aluminium (mitis castings). 

Ma?iganese (Mn; atomic weight 54.8) is so intimately 
associated with iron that it is rare to find an ore of it that 
does not contain the other in greater or less proportion. 
There are many compounds of manganese, one of the most 
commonly occurring being the black oxide Mn0 2 , the 
mineralogical name of which is pyrolusite. Manganese 
having an extraordinarily great affinity for oxygen is never 
found in nature in a metallic state. Although actual man- 
ganese ores in larger quantities do not occur in many 
localities, the element is very widely distributed, it accom- 
panying nearly everywhere iron in ores and rocks; it is 
found in every soil, and passes from it into plants and into 
animal substances (blood, urine, liver, excrements) ; it oc- 
3 



34 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

curs in wine, in sea and mineral waters, in meteorites, in 
the solar spectrum, etc. 

Metallic manganese was first extracted, in 1774, by Gahn. 
It may be obtained by reducing the dioxide Mn0 2 or the 
carbonate MnCO s with charcoal or soot at a very high 
temperature. The fused mass, which is combined with a 
little carbon (as in cast iron) is freed from its carbon by 
reheating with manganese carbonate. As thus obtained 
the metal has a grayish-white color and a fine-grained 
structure. It is much harder than wrought iron, very brit- 
tle, and feebly attracted by the magnet. It rapidly oxidizes 
when exposed to air. Its specific gravity is 8.013. It 
fuses only at the highest temperature of a blast furnace, 
and is rapidly attacked by dilute mineral acids, hydrogen 
being evolved. 

Manganese readily unites to alloys with many metals. 
The most important of these alloys for technical purposes 
are ferro-manganese, ferro-silicon manganese and cupro- 
manganese, the latter, amongst others, being used for the 
preparation of manganese-bronze, manganese-German 
silver, and manganese-brass. 

Cobalt (Co; atomic weight 58.6). Compounds of cobalt 
appear to have been known to the ancients and used by 
them in coloring glass. The metal itself was first isolated 
by Brand in 1733. Metallic cobalt is occasionally found in 
meteoric iron associated with nickel and phosphorus. Its 
principal naturally occurring compounds are the arsenide, 
smaltine, or tin-white cobalt; cobalt bloom or erythrine, 
and cobalt glance. The pure metal is unalterable in air, 
even when moist, of a red-white color, very difficult to fuse, 
highly malleable and ductile, and capable of taking a polish ; 
its specific gravity is about 8.9. It is slightly magnetic, 
and preserves this property even when alloyed with mer- 
cury. It bears in many respects a close resemblance to 
nickel, and is often associated with the latter in nature. It 
is not used by itself, and only very seldom as an intentional 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 35 

addition to alloys. The protoxide is used in the color in- 
dustry, the colors prepared from it being much employed 
in painting glass and porcelain. 

Cobalt alloys more readily with copper than with iron, 
and gives alloys which melt at a temperature near the fusing 
point of copper, are ductile, and by repeated heating can 
be worked under the hammer. According to Wiggin, 
cobalt-bronze possesses all the properties of the pure metal 
without its high price. According to Guillemin, alloys of 
copper with i to 5 per cent, cobalt are red, very ductile and 
tenacious, and possess a tensile strength of 88 lbs. per o. 001 
square inch. Knoop uses an alloy of 100 parts of iron aud 
5 to 10 cobalt for pressed glass moulds. 

Nickel (Ni ; atomic weight 58.6). This metal was dis- 
covered in 1 75 1 by Cronstedt, in the arsenide NiAs, a cop- 
per-colored mineral termed Kupfernickel (i. e., false cop- 
perj by the German miners. This compound, together 
with the impure arsenide termed " speiss " formed at the 
bottom of the melting pots in the manufacture of " smalt," 
constitute the principal sources of nickel in Europe. 
Nickel ores are found in France, Sweden, Cornwall, Spain, 
Germany, New Caledonia, Canada, and in some localities in 
the United States, the largest and most extensive deposits 
being those of New Caledonia and at Sudbury, Canada. 
The preparation of metallic nickel is connected with many 
difficulties. It is generally found in commerce in the form 
of small cubes of a dull gray appearance. By melting these 
cubes at a very high temperature, the metal is obtained as 
a silver-white mass of considerable hardness, which takes a 
fine polish and is unalterable in dry air. It is slightly mag- 
netic at ordinary temperatures, but temporarily loses this 
property on heating. It specific gravity is greater than that 
of iron, being 8.3 to 8.9, and with about an equal fusibility 
is far less subject to oxidation and corrosion. Its oxide is 
white, and defaces the polished metal comparatively little, 
and is easily removed. Nickel can be either cast or forged, 



36 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

but is mostly used in preparing alloys or for electroplating 
more oxidizable metals. 

The malleability of nickel allows of its being chased as are 
silver and gold, and with the result of greater luster, while 
the qualities of brilliancy, hardness and durability, whether 
used solidly or in electroplating, make it very suitable for 
table service. 

Dr. Fleitman, of Iserlohn, has devised a simple and suc- 
cessful process of refining and toughening nickel, which is 
now very largely used. It produces a homogeneous metal, 
from which castings may be made with much less liability 
to the presence of blow-holes than with other methods. 
Fleitman's procedure consists in adding to the melted 
charge in the pot, when ready to pour, a very small quan- 
tity of magnesium. The magnesium is added, in very 
small portions at a time, and stirred into the charge. 
About one ounce of magnesium is found to be sufficient 
for purifiying 60 lbs. of nickel. The theory of the opera- 
tion is that the magnesium reduces the occluded carbonic 
oxide, uniting with its oxygen to form magnesia, while 
carbon is separated in the form of graphite. The nickel 
refined by this method is said to become remarkably tough 
and malleable, and may be rolled into sheets and drawn 
into wire. Cast plates (intended for anodes in nickel- 
plating) after reheating, can be readily rolled down to the 
required thickness, which greatly improves them for plating 
purposes, as they dissolve with greater uniformity in the 
plating bath. Nickel so heated may be rolled into sheets 
as thin as paper, and has been successfully welded upon 
iron and steel plates. 

Nickel alloys completely with copper, iron, manganese, 
zinc, tin, silver and cobalt, probably also with gold ; in- 
completely, or not at all, with lead. Some of the nickel alloys 
possess properties which, for certain purposes, render them 
almost indispensable. The alloys known as argentan, Ger- 
man silver, China silver, similor, argent Ruolz, etc., are 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. $J 

prepared with the assistance of nickel. For coins, nickel 
appears to have been used in very ancient times, for, 
according to Moulan, Euthydemus King of Bactria, ordered, 
in 235 B. C, coins to be struck of an alloy containing JJ 
to 78 parts copper and 22 to 23 parts nickel. Switzerland 
commenced nickel coinage about 1850, and the United 
States in 1857. The subject of nickel-steel alloys was first 
called attention to by Mr. James Riley, of Glasgow, in a 
paper read by him before the British Iron and Steel Insti- 
tute, at their meeting in May 1889. Since then nickel-steel 
has become of great importance for the manufacture of 
armor-plates, with 3J to 4 per cent, of nickel. Such plates 
present at least the same resistance to the penetration of 
shot as compound plates, but are less inclined to show 
cracks and flaws. To increase their tenacity the armor- 
plates contain, as a rule from 1 to 5 per cent, nickel. At 
the Bethlehem Iron Works armor-plates with 3J per cent, 
nickel are produced. A nickel-steel block weighing 90,- 
000 lbs. has been cast at these works.* 

Chromium (Cr.; atomic weight 52.4). This is a com- 
paratively rare metal and only occurs in nature in combina- 
tion with other elements, the chief ore being chrome-iron 
stone, FeO,Cr 2 3 , which occurs massive in various parts 
of the world. It is isomorphous with magnetic oxide of 
iron ; it has a brownish-black color and sub-metallic luster. 
The metal is obtained by the reduction of its oxide or 
chloride, or by the electrolysis of its chlorides, when chro- 
mium separates out in brittle glistening scales. Its color 
is tin-white, and it has a specific gravity of 6.81. It melts 
with greater difficulty than platinum and is only slowly 
oxidized when heated in air. The fused metal is said to be 
as hard as corundum. Chromium is used in the form of 
an alloy with iron and carbon, forming a hard, white and 
brilliant steel. 

*Iron, 1891, No. 989. 



38 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Uranium (U; atomic weight 239.5). This element is 
not found free in nature. It occurs chiefly as the oxide : 
U 3 8 = U0 2 ,2U0 3 , in the mineral pitchblende. The 
metal may be obtained by fusing uranous chloride with 
sodium, best in an iron crucible, and then forms either a 
black powder, or a hard metallic button of a gray color. 
It melts at a red heat and has a specific gravity of 18.7. 

Uranium has been recommended for the manufacture of 
uranium steel, it being claimed that an addition of a very 
small quantity of the metal increases the elasticity and at 
the same time the hardness of the steel, making it especially 
suitable for casting ordnance. 

Among the metals belonging to the iron group, nickel is 
the most important for our purposes, on account of the 
numerous alloys which can be prepared with its assistance. 
Among the other metals iron is of some importance, small 
quantities of it, as previously mentioned, being frequently 
met with as accidental impurities in many alloys. 

2. Zinc Group. 
(Zinc, Cadmium, Indium, Gallium.) 
Zinc (Zn; atomic weight 64.88). The most valuable zinc 
ore is the native carbonate or calamine, which, together 
with the sulphide or blende, constitutes the principal source 
of the zinc of commerce. Zinc ores occur abundantly in 
the United States, the best being obtained in New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania and Virginia, and in a line of deposits run- 
ning through West Virginia and the Middle States, across 
to Illinois, Missouri and Kansas, and north into Wisconsin. 
Large quantities are mined in Missouri and other parts of 
the country, and in Europe. Zinc in the metallic state was 
not familiar to the ancients, although they were accustomed 
to use its ores in the manufacture of brass. The alchemist 
Paracelsus, in 1541, makes mention of metallic zinc, but it 
was doubtless known before his time, and was probably 
discovered by Albertus Magnus, who called it tnarchasita 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 39 

aurea. It became a regular article of manufacture about 
1720, in Germany, and in England fifteen or twenty years 
later. It has been regularly manufactured in the United 
States since about 1850, first in New Jersey and later on in 
a number of other localities. 

Metallic zinc is a bluish-white metal known to the trade 
as " spelter." Its properties are rather peculiar, and, as it 
plays an important part in the manufacture of alloys, will 
have to be more closely considered. Zinc is hard and 
brittle, and, when fractured, exhibits a highly crystalline 
structure. It experiences very little alteration in the air, 
becoming very slowly coated with a permanent and im- 
penetrable coating — a basic carbonate — which renders it 
very valuable for sheathing and for work exposed to the 
weather. Zinc can be cast, and makes good architectural 
ornaments. The castings made at a high temperature are 
brittle and crystalline ; when cast at near the melting point 
they are comparatively malleable. Zinc is hardened by 
working, and must be occasionally annealed. 

Zinc at an ordinary temperature shows a considerable 
degree of brittleness, and if a piece of sheet-zinc be several 
times bent backward and forward it soon breaks. By heat- 
ing the zinc, however, to between 230 and 302 F., it ac- 
quires a considerable degree of ductility, and can be rolled 
out into thin sheets. At a still higher temperature it again 
becomes brittle, and when heated at 392 F., can readily be 
reduced to a powder. Its specific gravity varies between 6.9 
and 7.2, the latter being that of the rolled metal. Zinc melts 
at 773. 5° F. By heating the fused metal but a little above 
its melting point with the admission of air, it ignites, and 
burns with a bright, white flame to a very spongy, pure, 
white powder, forming the oxide known under the name of 
"zinc white," and employed as a pigment. It is chiefly 
valued for its permanency, as it is not blackened by ex- 
posure to sulphuretted hydrogen like white lead. At a 
white heat zinc boils and can be distilled. 



40 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

At temperatures which do not materially exceed its 
fusing temperature (8o6° F), zinc alloys only to a limited 
extent with bismuth. According to Matthiessen, zinc dis- 
solves at the utmost 2.4 per cent, of bismuth, and bismuth, 
at the utmost, 14.3 per cent, of zinc. On the other hand 
it has been found by W. Spring and L. Romanoff that at 
1562 F. both metals dissolve in every desired proportion. 

With lead zinc alloys only to a limited extent. Com- 
mercial zinc obtained by distillation from plumbiferous ores 
may contain up to 5.6 per cent, of lead. If, however, for 
the purpose of refining, such zinc be kept liquid for some 
time, a portion of the dissolved lead separates in the form 
of lead-zinc with about three per cent, of zinc and, being 
the heavier constituent, deposits on the bottom. The re- 
maining zinc then contains, as a rule, not much over one 
per cent, of lead. 

With silver zinc alloys, however, more readily and this 
behavior of zinc, on the one hand, towards silver and, on 
the other, towards lead, is made use of in smelting works 
to withdraw the content of silver from argentiferous lead. 
Zinc is added to the melted lead whereby an insoluble zinc- 
silver alloy is formed. This rises to the surface and is 
skimmed off for further working. 

Zinc alloys readily with copper, tin, gold, nickel and 
antimony. Its behavior towards iron has previously been 
referred to. 

Cadmium ( Cd ; atomic weight 111.7), occurs in nature 
in a few minerals, for instance, combined with sulphur in 
greenockite. Compounds of this metal frequently occur, 
associated with zinc ores ; as cadmium is more volatile than 
zinc, it is mainly found in the first portion of the distilled 
metal when the ores are reduced by carbon. Cadmium 
was discovered by Strohmeier in 1818. 

Pure metallic cadmium is obtained by precipitating from 
a solution of zinc containing cadmium in sulphuric or 
hydrochloric acid, the cadmium by pure zinc, or by dissolv- 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 41 

ing commercial cadmium in sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, 
precipitating cadmium sulphide by sulphuretted hydrogen, 
dissolving the thoroughly washed cadmium sulphide in 
concentrated hydrochloric acid, precipitating the solution 
with excess of ammonium carbonate, and igniting the 
washed and dried cadmium carbonate with j T pulverized 
coal in a glass or porcelain retort in order to distil over 
cadmium. Reduction may also be affected with hydrogen. 
Dissolve commercial, zinciferous cadmium in hydrochloric 
acid, so that a small quantity of the metal remains undis- 
solved, filter the dilute solution, add ammonia in excess, 
filter again, and add potash solution as long as turbidity 
results. Wash the precipitate of cadmium oxyhydrate, dry, 
dehydrate it completely by continued heating in a covered 
crucible at 572 F., and convert into brown cadmium 
oxide, which is reduced. 

Cadmium is a silver-white crystalline metal and possesses 
the same property as tin, of giving out a crackling sound 
when bent. It is quite soft, but a small content of zinc 
makes it brittle. On account of its ductility it can be 
readily rolled or beaten into sheet and very thin foil, the 
latter being more coherent than tin foil and having, similar 
to lead foil, a dull sound. By rolling, cadmium does not 
completely lose its crystalline structure. Its specific grav- 
ity is 8.6, it melts at 608 F., and boils at 1580 F. It is 
readily dissolved by mineral acids ; contact with platinum 
preserves it from the action of strong nitric acid. 

With gold, platinum, copper and partially with mercury, 
cadmium yields brittle alloys; but with lead, tin, and in cer- 
tain proportions with silver and mercury, very ductile com- 
binations, for instance, 1 and 2 parts of silver with 1 cadmium, 
while an alloy of 2 parts cadmium and 1 silver is brittle. 
Cadmium 1 part and mercury 1, gives a very plastic, malle- 
able amalgam, while that obtained from cadmium 1 part 
and mercury 2, is just as malleable and not so tough. Ac- 
cording to de Souza, cadmium amalgam retains mercury at 



42 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

68o° F., but no longer at 824 F. Alloys of cadmium with 
bismuth and lead are readily fusible, and those of tin and 
cadmium very ductile. By combining cadmium with tin, 
bismuth and lead in certain proportions, alloys are formed 
which on account of their low fusing points, find many 
technical applications. 

Indium (In; atomic weight 113.4). This rare metal, dis- 
covered in 1863 by Reich and Richter in the zinc blende of 
Freiberg, is also found in very small quantities in a few 
other zinc ores, and when these are worked for zinc alloys 
itself with the metal. Indium is a white lustrous metal of 
specific gravity 7.4, and melts at 349 F. It remains 
unchanged in the air, but burns when heated to redness 
with a violet light, and producing brown vapors. It dis- 
solves slowly in hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid, but 
easily in nitric acid. 

Gallium (Ga; atomic weight 69.8). This element, dis- 
covered in 1875 by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, is contained in 
some samples of blende found in the Pyrenees, but only in 
extremely minute quantities — about 0.002 per cent. It is a 
white lustrous metal of low melting-point — 86° F. — when 
once melted it remains liquid, like mercury, even at o°. 
Its specific gravity is 5.9. The metal remains unaltered in 
the air, and only becomes covered with a thin layer of 
oxide when heated nearly to redness. It is not attacked by 
water at the ordinary temperature, but dilute hydrochloric 
acid as well as the alkalies dissolve it with evolution of 
hydrogen. 

Thus far only alloys of gallium with aluminium and 
iridium have been prepared. 

3. Tiingsten Group. 
(Tungsten, Molybdenum, Vanadium.) 
As regards their properties the three metals forming this 
group approach the iron group. 

Tungsten (W ; atomic weight 184). This element resem- 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 43 

bles molybdenum in many respects, but is distinguished 
from it by the high specific gravity of the free element and 
of its compounds. Tungsten never occurs free in nature, 
and its compounds are only found in small quantities. The 
best known of the tungsten minerals are wolfram — ferrous 
and manganous tungstate — and scheelite — calcium tung- 
state — the former of a dark-gray color, with a specific grav- 
ity of 7.5, the latter consisting of white crystals also remark- 
able for its high specific gravity. 

Tungsten prepared by the reduction of tungstic anhydride 
in a stream of hydrogen at a bright red heat, forms small 
gray crystalline particles, which under the burnisher become 
lustrous like iron. Its specific gravity is about 19, and 
thus nearly approaches that of gold. It is fusible only with 
difficulty, especially in larger quantities, is brittle, and so 
hard that it scratches glass. At the ordinary temperature 
it remains unchanged in the air, but when it is heated in the 
pulverulent form it burns easily, and produces tungstic an- 
hydride. Hot nitric acid oxidizes it to the same product. 
Tungsten forms with the other metals extremely hard 
alloys, the most important of which is ferro-tungsten used 
in the preparation of tungsten steel. 

Molybdenum (Mo; atomic weight 96). This element 
occurs chiefly in nature as molybdenite, and more rarely as 
wolframite. In its physical proporties molybdenum far 
more closely resembles the metals than the non-metals. It 
is of a silver-white color, with a strong metallic luster, very 
hard, and melts with extreme difficulty. Its specific gravity 
is 8.6. Thus far it has found no application in the manu- 
facture of alloys. 

Vanadium (V; atomic weight 51. 1). Vanadium is quite 
widely distributed in nature, though only in minute quanti- 
ties. The best known of the vanadium minerals are vana- 
dite, descloizite, dechenite and volborthite. Vanadium in 
small quantities is frequently found in iron ores, especially 
in pea-ore ; it then passes into the iron, and especially into 
the finery cinders. 



44 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The preparation of vanadium by the electric method pro- 
posed by Gin, appears to yield the best results. By heat- 
ing with carbon he reduces vanadic anhydride, V 2 5 to 
V 2 3 , moulds the latter with retort-carbon and rosin into 
the shape of rods, similar to arc-lamp carbons, and uses 
them as anode, while the cathode consists of steel. The 
electrodes dip in a bath of iron fluoride and calcium fluor- 
ide, so that the fluorine formed on the anode combines with 
the vanadium to vanadium fluoride, which is converted with 
the steel cathode to metallic vanadium and iron fluoride. 

Vanadium is a brittle, pale gray, metal with a silver- 
white luster, of a crystalline structure, and is non-magnetic. 
Its specific gravity is 5.5. It does not oxidize when ex- 
posed to the air, even at 212 F., and does not decompose 
water at 212 F. It fuses at 3236 F. When thrown in 
the form of powder into a flame it burns, emitting brilliant 
sparks. The metal is not attacked by hydrochloric and 
dilute sulphuric acids. It dissolves, with a blue color, in 
even very dilute nitric acid, as well as in aqua regia. 

Notwithstanding its high melting point, vanadium readily 
alloys with other metals, for instance iron. A mixture of 
ferric oxide, vanadium pentoxide or vanadic anhydride, 
V 2 5 , and charcoal yields, when heated in an electric 
furnace, a crystalline regulus of a bluish-white color, homo- 
geneous fracture and containing 72.96 per cent, iron, 18.16 
vanadium and 8.35 carbon. It can be readily drawn out to 
wire. With copper a bronze-colored, malleable alloy with 
96.52 per cent, copper and 3.38 vanadium is in the same 
manner obtained. It can be readily drawn out to wire, and 
is harder than copper. With aluminium an alloy is ob- 
tained by bringing a mixture of vanadium pentoxide and 
finely pulverized aluminium into a crucible containing 
liquid aluminium, and stirring. The malleable alloy con- 
tains 2 per cent, vanadium. According to Helouis, this 
alloy differs from ordinary aluminium by its ring and 
might possibly be used for small bells, tuning forks, musi- 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 



45 



cal instruments, etc. When vanadium is melted together 
with silver two layers are formed, the upper one of vana- 
dium without silver, and the lower one of silver with traces 
of vanadium. 

4. Tin Group. 
(Tin, Titanium, Zirconium, Thorium). 

Of the elements included in this group, only tin and 
titanium need here be referred to, the others being of no 
importance for our purpose. 

Tin (Sn; atomic weight 117.35). Native tin is of very 
rare occurence, and then it is combined with lead, and even 
with gold in Siberia. It can, however, be readily extracted 
from tin-stone, or cassiterite, occuring in great abundance 
in Cornwall, Devonshire, and other localities. A consider- 
able quantity of tin ore is obtained from Saxony, South 
America, and Australia. The nodular or rounded grains 
of tin found in beds of streams and in alluvial soil are 
called stream-tin, and are very pure tin-stone : as found in 
the alluvial soil of the Island of Banca, it is considered the 
best in the world. 

Commercial tin is never pure. The following table 
shows a set of analyses given by Bruno Kerl : * 



Tin 

Iron 

Lead 

Copper . . . 
Antimony 
Bismuth. . 



Banca. 



I. 



II. 



99.961 99.9 
0.019 0.2 
0.014 1 — 
0.006 — 



British. 



II. 



99.96 98.64 

— 0.24 
0.24 0.16 



Peruvian. 



93-50 
0.07 
2.76 

3.76 



II. 



95-66 
0.07 
i-93 

2.34 



Saxon. 
99.9 


Bohemian. 


I. 
99-59 


II. 


98.18 


- 


0.406 


1.60 


0.1 




_ 



Chemically pure tin is a white metal with a strong luster, 
*Metalhuttenkunde, 1873. 



46 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

it has a specific gravity of 7.28 to 7.4, according to the 
method of preparation, the purest being the lightest. It 
scarcely oxidizes in moist air, and entirely retains its metal- 
lic luster in dry air. It possesses but little tenacity, but is 
quite malleable, and can be rolled into very thin plates 
(tin foil). It is highly crystalline, and when bent gives out 
a crackling noise, the so-called " tin-cry," caused by the 
crystals rubbing against each other. It possesses a peculiar 
odor. It melts at 453 F. When fused in contact with air 
it acquires a film of oxide, and at a white heat burns with 
a bright flame, and is converted into a whitish powder, 
known as " putty powder," and used in the arts for polishing. 

Unmanufactured tin comes into market as " block tin," 
as "grain tin," and in small bars or "sticks." Block tin is 
cast in ingots or blocks in moulds of marble; grain tin is 
made by heating these ingots until very brittle, and then 
breaking them upon stone blocks ; it is sometimes granu- 
lated by melting and pouring into water. 

Tin, though soft by itself, possesses a remarkable prop- 
erty of imparting to certain alloys a high degree of hard- 
ness. It being quite indifferent towards certain organic 
acids, it is extensively used for coating other metals, as 
iron, copper, lead, etc. 

Tin alloys readily with lead, antimony, zinc, bismuth, cop- 
per, gold, silver, and other metals. 

Titanium (Ti ; atomic weight 48.1). This compara- 
tively rare element is found in nature as titanic anhydride, 
Ti0 2 , in rutile, brookite, anatas ; as titanate in combina- 
tion with oxidized iron as titanic iron. Titanic iron ores 
of different localities contain from 8 to 50 per cent, of 
titanic anhydride, and yield pig iron with up to 1.7 per 
cent, of titanium. Titanium exerts, even in very small 
quantities, a very energetic influence upon iron, or acts in- 
directly by the removal of injurious substances, especially 
sulphur. According to Nau*, pig iron produced from 

*Iron, 1892, No. 1004, p. 316. 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. Afi 

titaniferous ores, if added to steel, renders the latter free 
from blisters and, like silicon, counteracts red-shortness. 

Metallic titanium is obtained in the following manner : 
Two copper boats, one containing dry potassium fluotitan- 
ate, and the other metallic sodium, are brought into an 
iron tube which is then filled with pure hydrogen. The 
boat containing the fluotitanate is first heated to redness,, 
then that containing the sodium, so that the vapor of the 
metal is carried by the hydrogen over the titanium salt. By 
this process sodium and potassium fludrides are produced 
and free titanium. If the two former compounds are after- 
wards extracted by hot water, the titanium remains behind 
as a dark gray amorphous powder, resembling iron which 
has been reduced in hydrogen. The element in this pul- 
verulent form burns brilliantly when heated in oxygen or 
in the air, forming titanic anhydride. It dissolves easily in 
hydrochloric acid, hydrogen being evolved. 

Moissan obtained metallic titanium in ten to twelve min- 
utes by heating in an electric furnace with a current of 
iooo amperes and sixty volts, ten to fifteen ozs. of a com- 
pressed and dried mixture of titanic acid and carbon firmly 
pressed into a coke crucible three inches in diameter. 
After cooling the crucible showed a mass fused only to a 
few centimeters deep; fusion was not complete even with a 
current of 2200 amperes and 60 volts. Beneath the fused 
titanium was a layer of yellow nitride, and on the bottom 
of the crucible a layer of blue titanic oxide. The best 
sample (carbide and oxide) obtained contained 48 per 
cent, carbon and 2.1 per cent, impurities. By heating the 
fused mass mixed with titanic acid to the same temperature 
as before, titanium, free from nitrogen and silicon, with 2 
per cent, carbon was formed. 

Moissan and Violle's electric furnace in Fig. 1 is arranged 
as follows : 

A cylindrical receptacle of carbon of the same depth and 
and width is formed from a carbon tube a and rests with 



4 8 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



its lower end upon a carbon plate. The upper portion car- 
ries a carbon plate of the same diameter. The carbon 
cylinder is contained in a limestone block b, being separated 
from the walls of the latter by a layer of air 5 millimeters 
thick, and rests upon a support of magnesia c. Through 
two lateral apertures horizontal electrodes (carbon cylin- 
ders) d are introduced which can be moved at will upon a 
carriage. The electrodes receive the current by means of 
thick copper couplings e provided with cheeks in which the 
ends of the electric cable are inserted. 

The titanium with 2 per cent, carbon prepared according 

Fig. 1. 




to Moissan's process in the electric furnace shows a brilliant 
white fracture and scratches steel and rock crystal. Its 
specific gravity is 4.87. 

Titanium dissolves readily in lead and iron and gives 
alloys with copper, tin and chromium. 

According to Welly, a beautiful golden yellow titanium 
bronze of excellent durability and ductility is obtained by 
melting copper with titaniferous iron with the addition of 
some sulphur, whereby titaniferous copper and a slag con- 
taining ferrous sulphide is produced. 

The Pittsburgh Reduction Co. produces aluminium- 
titanium alloys with 0.5 to 10 per cent, titanium.* Ac- 
cording to Langley these alloys possess, in addition to 

* Engineering and Mining Journal, 1892, Vol. 54, No. 16. 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 49 

elasticity and great strength, considerable hardness in a 
rolled or otherwise worked state, while as castings they are 
not so hard. Even a small quantity of titanium suffices to 
impart to aluminium greater tensile strength ; while that of 
the latter amounts to 22,300 lbs. per square inch, an alumi- 
nium-titanium alloy showed 73,500 lbs. The specific 
gravity is not much greater than that of pure aluminium. 
With up to v 5 per cent, titanium the alloys show the same 
shrinkage as aluminium, but are harder, and with 10 per 
cent, are as elastic as steel. Sometimes the alloys contain 
in addition 1 per cent, chromium, which renders them still 
harder and makes them suitable for cutting tools. The 
alloys are produced by dissolving titanic anhydride in fused 
aluminium-sodium fluoride, and then adding aluminium. 

Rickard* has investigated the behavior of titaniferous 
aluminium towards the action of hydrochloric, nitric and 
acetic acids, caustic potash, common salt, and water con- 
containing carbonic acid. 

To make a hole in a 1 -millimeter thick sheet of an alloy 
of aluminium with 2 per cent, of titanium, there were re- 
quired with dilute potash solution, 3 days 20 minutes (pure 
metal, 7 days 20 hours); with hydrochloric acid, 64 days 
(pure metal, 46 days 22 hours); with concentrated nitric 
acid, 14 days 20 hours (pure metal, 28 days 8 hours); with 
concentrated sea salt solution, 4550 days (pure metal, 6800 
days); with strong acetic acid, 1375 days (pure metal, 1810 
days). As compared with copper and German silver alloys, 
the titanium alloy would therefore appear suitable in cases 
where hydrochloric and acetic acids have to be considered. 

In Moissan's electric furnace (see Fig. 1), titanium com- 
bines with aluminium and in the Siemens-Martin furnace 
the alloy can be used to introduce titanium into melted 
steel, whereby the excess of aluminium is rapidly consumed 
and scorified. 

*The Journal of the Franklin Institute, 1895, No. 1, p. 69. 
4 



5° 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



The electric furnace of the Deutsche Gold und Silber- 
scheideanstalt of Frankfort-on-the-Main, for continuous 
working on a large scale, is shown in Fig. 2. It is intended 
for melting very refractory metals, for the reduction of 

Fig. 2. 




metallic oxides reducible with difficulty, for the production 
of carbides, etc. It contains a crucible a of carbon A with 
cover L, and this forms the negative electrode, to which at 
F, the negative cable is connected. With a crucible of 
non-conducting material the current is introduced by means 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 5 1 

of a conducting carbon rod through a hole in the bottom 
of the crucible. The binding screw E serves for securing 
the positive cable. By means of an adjusting screw D, the 
positive carbon B can be raised or lowered. C is the 
charging funnel with throttle-valve b, for the introduction 
of pulverulent materials, and K a stopper for the tap serv- 
ing for discharging the melted contents of the crucible. 
The pipes G and H serve for carrying off evolved gases. 
The furnace can be used for currents of ioo to 300 am- 
peres, and more. 

5. Lead Group. 

(Lead, thallium.) 

Lead (Pb ; atomic weight 206.41), This metal is much 
used in the manufacture of alloys. It is so soft that it may 
be easily scratched with the finger nail, but it has too little 
tenacity to be drawn into fine wire, although some lead 
wire is found in the market. It is very malleable and is 
extensively used in the forms of sheet-lead and lead-pipe. 
It was formerly employed for casting statues, but its use 
for this purpose has been almost entirely abandoned at the 
present time, experience having shown that, though such 
statues resist the action of the air quite well, they gradu- 
ally collapse. 

Pure lead is a bluish-white, lustrous, inelastic metal ; 
when freshly cut or melted it shows a bright surface, which, 
however, rapidly tarnishes on exposure to the air. It is 
very heavy, its specific gravity being 11.4, and is easily 
fusible, melting at about 620 F. It boils and volatilizes at 
a white heat, but cannot be distilled from closed vessels. 
The affinity of lead for oxygen is so great, that in melting, 
the surface becomes coated with a yellow layer of oxide ; 
on removing this layer with a hook, the pure white color 
of the metal shows itself but immediately disappears again. 
In this manner large quantities of lead can in a short time 
be converted into oxide. The alloys of lead are distin- 



52 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

guished by great fusibility, a valuable property for some 
purposes, and by being, as a rule, much -harder than the 
lead itself. 

Lead alloys readily with " tin, antimony," bismuth, silver 
and gold. Its behavior towards iron and zinc has already 
been referred to (see iron and zinc). 

Thallium (Tl ; atomic weight 203.64) Vis a metal very 
much resembling lead. It is widely distributed, being 
found in iron and copper pyrites, in blende, in native 
sulphur, and in lepidolite. It is most profitably extracted 
from the flue dust of the pyrites burners. It has a strong 
metallic luster, but quickly tarnishes by oxidation. Its 
specific gravity is about 11.8, and it is softer even than 
lead. Several alloys exhibiting characteristic properties 
have been prepared with the assistance of thallium, but the 
metal is too expensive to be used for technical purposes. 

6. Silver Group. 
(Silver, mercury and copper.) 

The metals belonging to this group are of great import- 
ance in the manufacture of alloys, copper being especially 
distinguished in this respect, since there is an exceedingly 
large number of alloys used for various industrial purposes 
of which it forms the principal constituent. The other two 
metals belonging to this group are also much employed for 
the same purpose, and it may be said that this group is the 
one most deserving the attention of all interested in alloys. 

Copper (Cu ; atomic weight 63.18). This metal has been 
known from very early times, it being found native in many 
parts of the earth and requiring, therefore, simply to be 
melted in order to obtain it in a form suitable for technical 
purposes. It was used for the manufacture of tools and 
weapons long before the discovery of methods for the ex- 
traction of iron. 

Copper has a characteristic yellowish-red (copper-red) 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 53 

color, but on exposure to the air becomes gradually coated 
with a brown layer of oxide. Heated to redness in the air 
it is quickly oxidized, becoming covered with a black scale. 
It has a specific gravity of 8.9, and is tough, very malleable, 
and ductile, so that it can be rolled out into very thin leaves 
and drawn out to fine wires. It melts at a bright-red heat, 
and seems to be slightly volatile at a strong white heat. 

Copper alloys readily with most metals, especially with 
gold, silver, zinc, tin, .nickel, antimony, aluminium, etc., 
but partially only, or with difficulty, with lead and iron, 
though of the latter it readily absorbs small quantities. 
Many of the copper alloys are of great importance. All 
alloys known as bronze, brass, bell-metal, gun-metal as well 
as German silver, argentan, etc., contain copper in varying 
quantities, and possess properties which render them in- 
dispensable for certain branches of the metal industry. 

Mercury (Hg; atomic weight 199. 88J. This remarkable 
metal, sometimes called quicksilver, has also been known 
from remote times, and, perhaps more than all others, has 
excited the attention and curiosity of experimenters by 
reason of its peculiar physical properties. Metallic mercury 
is occasionally found free, and in union with silver and 
gold, but its chief source is the sulphide or cinnabar. 
Mercury has a nearly silver-white color and a very high 
degree of luster. It is liquid at ordinary temperatures and 
solidifies only when cooled to — 40 F. In this state it is 
soft and malleable. The specific gravity of pure mercury is 
13.596. It boils at 662 F., but volatilizes to a sensible 
extent at all temperatures. In regard to its behavior in 
the air, it is a medium between the metals, readily combin- 
ing with oxygen and those which show no special affinity 
for it. Since it does not combine with oxygen at an ordi- 
nary temperature, and retains its metallic luster even in a 
moist atmosphere, it is generally included among the so- 
called noble metals. 

But when it is heated for some time to near its boiling 



54 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

point, it slowly absorbs oxygen and is gradually converted 
into a bright-red, crystalline powder — mercuric oxide. By 
heating the oxide thus formed somewhat more strongly, it 
is again decomposed into its constituents, oxygen and 
metallic mercury. 

Mercury alloys or, as it is generally termed, amalgamates 
directly with many metals, with some, for instance, iron 
only indirectly, and not at all with platinum. The amal- 
gams are either liquid, the degree of fluidity depending on 
the quantity of metals compounded with the mercury, or 
they form solid bodies with perceptible crystallization and 
sometimes a high degree of hardness. Several of these 
amalgams are employed for technical purposes. 

Silver (Ag ; atomic weight 107.06). This element is 
frequently found in the metallic or native state crystallized 
in cubes or octahedra, which are sometimes aggregated to- 
gether. It is more frequently met with, however, in com- 
bination with sulphur, forming the sulphide of silver, which 
is generally associated with large quantities of the sulphides 
of lead, antimony, and iron. The metal has been known 
from very early times, and although quite widely diffused 
is found in comparatively small quantity, and hence bears a 
high value, which adapts it for a medium of currency. It 
has a characteristic (silver-white) color, which it retains 
even when fused in contact with air, and by reason of this 
property has to be classed with the noble metals. Its 
specific gravity is about 10.48 and may be increased by 
hammering. It is harder than gold, but somewhat softer 
than copper, and next to gold is the most ductile of all 
metals. It can be rolled out into thin leaves, so that a 
small quantity of silver suffices to cover a large surface, 
and on account of its toughness can be drawn out into 
wires so fine as to be scarcely perceptible by the naked 
eye. It melts at about 1680 F.; at a white heat a strong 
volatilization takes place, whereby the silver is converted 
into bluish-purple vapor. The behavior of silver when 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 55 

fused in contact with the air is very remarkable. It ab- 
sorbs a considerable quantity of oxygen without, however, 
chemically combining with it, the oxygen being again ex- 
pelled as the metal solidifies. 

Silver is too soft to be worked by itself, pure silver being 
only used for special purposes where the presence of another 
metal would exert an injurious effect. For all other pur- 
poses alloys of silver, especially such as contain a certain 
quantity of copper, are employed; silver coins and silver 
utensils consisting, for instance, of an alloy of silver and 
copper. 

Silver alloys readily with most metals, but does not alloy 
with iron. 

7. Gold Group. 

(Gold and Platinum.) 
The metals belonging to this group are distinguished by 
a high specific gravity, and are the densest bodies known. 
Their chief characteristic is, however, their slight affinity 
for oxygen. They can be melted in contact with the air 
and exposed to the highest temperatures without combin- 
ing with oxygen. Even their combinations with oxygen, 
which can be obtained in an indirect manner, are so un- 
stable that on slight heating they yield up the oxygen and 
are decomposed, the pure metal being left behind. On ac- 
count of being found in comparatively small quantities, 
they bear a high value and are the most precious of all 
metals. 

Gold (Au; atomic weight 196.2). Gold has been known 
from the earliest times, and its comparative rarity, its ex- 
ceptional color, and its power of resisting atmospheric in- 
fluences have caused it to be esteemed as one of the most 
precious metals. As might be expected from its want of 
direct attraction for oxygen, gold is one of those few 
metals which are always found in the metallic state ; and it 
is remarkable as being one of the most widely distributed 



56 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

elements, although seldom met with in large quantity in 
any one locality. Gold has a beautiful yellow color, a strong 
metallic luster unalterable in the air, a specific gravity of 
19.5, is the most ductile of all metals, and can be drawn 
out into extremely fine wire. It surpasses all other metals 
in malleability, and can be beaten out into thin leaves which 
transmit the light with a green color. It has a very high 
melting point (about 2372 ° F.) and becomes fluid only at 
a white heat. It can readily be volatilized at a high tem- 
perature produced by means of electricity. 

Pure gold is nearly as soft as lead, so that articles manu- 
factured from it would speedily wear out. In order to in- 
crease its hardness when used for articles of jewelry or 
coinage, it is alloyed with silver or copper or with both. 
It also alloys readily with most other metals. 

Platinum (Pt ; atomic weight 194.31). This metal is 
always found in the metallic state in the form of grains and 
irregular pieces. As a rule it is, however, not pure, but 
the grains or pieces are generally associated with a group 
of other metals possessing similar properties, viz., rhodium, 
palladium, iridium, ruthenium, as well as gold, silver and 
iron. Platinum has a gray-white color, resembling that of 
some brands of steel. It is heavier than gold, its specific 
gravity being 21.5. Up to the commencement of the pres- 
ent century platinum was considered infusible, but at the 
present time a quantity of platinum up to 450 pounds can 
be readily fused with the assistance of a heat produced by 
the use of an oxyhydrogen blowpipe. Platinum is dis- 
tinguished by great chemical indifference, it being scarcely 
acted upon by any single acid, but like gold only dissolves 
in a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (nitro- 
muriatic acid). On account of this indifference and its 
comparatively great hardness, it is especially used in the 
manufacture of chemical utensils, it being in this respect 
equal to gold. 

In a certain respect platinum has some similarity with 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 57 

iron. It can be welded and readily combines with carbon 
to a mass with a lower melting point than that of pure 
platinum. Platinum forms alloys readily and in any desired 
proportions with most metals. 

8. Bismuth Group. 
(Bismuth, Antimony.) 

Bismuth (Bi; atomic weight 207.5). This element is 
only sparsely distributed in nature, and nearly always occurs 
in the free state, though it is sometimes found associated 
with sulphur, copper and lead. It is grayish-white with a 
reddish tinge; is brittle, and can therefore be readily 
powdered, and crystallizes very easily, Its specific gravity 
is 9.8; it melts at 507° F.; it shares with water the property 
of expanding considerably on passing from the liquid to 
the cold state. 

Bismuth being too brittle to be used by itself, its chief 
employment is in the preparation of certain alloys with 
other metals. Some kinds of type metal and stereotype 
metal contain bismuth whereby they acquire the property of 
expanding in the mould during solidification and are forced 
into the finest lines of the impression. Bismuth is also re- 
markable for its tendency to lower the fusing points of 
alloys which cannot be accounted for by its own low 
melting point. Bismuth is also employed together with 
antimony in the construction of thermo-electro piles. 

Antimony (Sb ; atomic weight 119.6). This element 
very seldom occurs free in nature, but is usually found 
combined with sulphur. The commonest form is the 
trisulphide (Sb 2 S 3 ) — the mineral called gray antimony ore 
or antimonite. 

In its physical properties antimony so closely resembles 
the metals that it is frequently included in this group of 
elements. Its chemical properties and the compounds which 
it forms show, however, that it is much more closely allied 
to the nitrogen group of the non-metals. It is a lustrous 



58 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

crystalline solid of a bluish-white color, with a specific 
gravity of 6.72. It melts at 824 F. and crystallizes on cool- 
ing in rhombohedra. When slowly cooled its fracture shows 
large crystalline laminae, but when quickly cooled the fracture 
is granular. It is volatilized at a bright red heat, and at a 
white heat may be distilled in a stream of hydrogen gas. It 
is brittle and can be converted into a fine powder by pound- 
ing in a mortar and, like bismuth, cannot be used by itself. 
It is, however, of importance for the manufacture of several 
useful alloys, and possesses the property of increasing the 
hardness of a metal even if mixed with it only in small 
quantities. 

Arsenic (As; atomic weight 74.9). This element, like 
antimony, is frequently classed among the metals, it having 
strongly marked metallic characteristics such as metallic 
luster and conductivity for electricity. The chemical char- 
acter and composition of its compounds connects it in the 
closest manner with phosphorus. 

Arsenic occurs in nature both native and in chemical 
combination with other elements. Native arsenic is some- 
times found in the crystalline state, but it generally occurs 
in rough lumps which readily break up into uneven laminae. 
More common in nature are its compounds, of which the 
most important are : Arsenical iron, arsenical iron pyrites 
or mispickel, smaltine or tin-white cobalt, realgar and or- 
piment. Besides these, arsenic is also found in combination 
with oxygen as white arsenic, and in the form of arsenic 
acid in various minerals. The only important mine of 
arsenic-bearing ores, thus far known in this country, is 
located at Brinton, Virginia. It was opened in 1903, and 
by its discovery American manufacturers have been re- 
lieved of the necessity of depending upon foreign sources of 
supply of an article indispensable in the arts and industries. 

Arsenic when freshly broken possesses a steel-gray color 
and strong metallic luster. It is very brittle and may there- 
fore be easily reduced to powder. Its specific gravity is 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 59 

5.7. When exposed to moist air arsenic loses its metallic 
luster and becomes dull in consequence of surface oxida- 
tion. When heated in the air it volatilizes and burns, form- 
ing white fumes of arsenious anhydride. At the same time 
an unpleasant garlic-like odor is noticed. Arsenic is used 
for hardening lead in the manufacture of shot, and some 
other alloys. However, on account of its extremely poison- 
ous nature its use must be avoided in alloys to be employed 
for the manufacture of utensils in which food is to be 
preserved. 

An alloy, as generally understood, is a combination of two 
or more metals, but there are some so-called alloys consist- 
ing of but one metal, whose properties have been changed 
in a remarkable manner by the addition of a non-metallic 
element. It has been previously pointed out that the 
properties Of iron are sensibly changed by a very small ad- 
dition of sulphur or phosphorus, and that carbon acts in a 
similar manner. It will, therefore, be necessary to briefly 
describe these elements. 

Sulphur (S; atomic weight 31.96). This element is re- 
markable for its abundant occurrence in nature in the 
uncombined state. It is purified by distillation, and then 
forms a crystalline mass of a characteristic pale yellow 
color, which melts at 232 F., and at about 780 F. is con- 
verted into ruby-colored vapors. By the admixture of 
organic substances sulphur acquires a black color in melt- 
ing. The affinity of sulphur for most metals is so great 
that they combine with it with great energy. If, for in- 
stance, copper be thrown into a vessel containing sulphur 
heated to the boiling point, the combination takes place 
and is attended with vivid combustion. An intimate mix- 
ture of iron and sulphur needs only to be slightly heated to 
effect the union of both bodies, which is accompanied by 
vivid glowing. The combination can even be introduced 
by moistening a large quantity of the mixture with water. 

The combinations of the metals with sulphur are in most 



6o THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cases distinguished by a high degree of brittleness, a small 
admixture of sulphur being generally sufficient to impart to 
them this property. And this property being by no means 
a desirable one, care should be had in making experiments 
in the preparation of alloys to use only metals absolutely 
free from sulphur. It may also be remarked that in such 
experiments the presence of every foreign body exerts a 
disturbing influence, and, in order to obtain satisfactory 
results, it is recommended to use only chemically pure 
metals. 

Carbon (C ; atomic weight 11,97). Carbon is the most 
widely diffused element, it forming a never-wanting con- 
stituent of ail animal and vegetable bodies. Few elements 
are capable of assuming so many different aspects as carbon. 
It is met with transparent and colorless in the diamond, 
opaque and black and quasi-metallic in graphke or black 
lead, velvety and porous in wood charcoal and, under new 
conditions, in anthracite, coke and gas-carbon. 

In nature carbon appears crystallized in the hexagonal 
form as graphite, in the tessular form as diamond, and 
amorphous as coal in the ordinary sense of the word. 

For our purposes only the modifications known as 
graphite or plumbago and as amorphous coal are of interest. 

Carbon, for which no actual solvent is known, has the 
remarkable property of dissolving in considerable quanti- 
ties in several melted metals, the best known example of 
this being its behavior towards iron. 

As is well known, in the manufacture of iron pure iron is 
never obtained, but the so-called cast-iron, which contains 
a certain quantity of carbon. There can be no doubt that 
the carbon is actually dissolved in the iron, for in cooling 
certain varieties of cast-iron containing much carbon a 
certain quantity of it is separated out in a crystalline form 
as graphite. 

The content of carbon, as previously stated in speaking 
of iron, exerts a considerable influence upon the qualities 



SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 6l 

of a metal, the special properties of the various kinds of 
iron known as wrought-iron, steel, and cast-iron being 
chiefly due to the varying quantity of carbon they contain. 
Generally speaking, it may be said a content of carbon 
makes the metal more fusible, but it is impossible to state 
in a general way what other influence is exerted upon its 
properties, this influence depending essentially on the quan- 
tity admixed. It is, therefore, only possible to determine 
in each case the influence exerted upon the properties of a 
metal by the presence of carbon. 

Phosphorus (P; atomic weight 31). This element is 
never known to occur uncombined in nature, and its prop- 
erties render the use of special precautions necessary for its 
management, it being very inflammable. A stick of phos- 
phorus held in the air always appears to emit a whitish 
smoke, which in the dark is luminous, this effect being 
chiefly due to a slow combustion the phosphorus under- 
goes by the oxygen of the air. Larger quantities of phos- 
phorus exposed to the air become so thoroughly heated 
by oxidation as to commence to melt and spontaneously 
ignite. A content of phosphorus in metals is only possible 
if ores containing phosphoric acid are used in their prepar- 
ation, whereby a reduction of the phosphoric acid to phos- 
phorus takes place, which combines with the metal. 

In speaking of iron it has already been pointed out that 
a small content of phosphorus renders it red-short or hot- 
short, i. e., it makes it so brittle that it cannot be worked 
under the hammer even at red heat. If metals be intention- 
ally mixed with phosphorus, the mixtures — they cannot be 
called alloys in the strict sense of the word — show also a 
high degree of brittleness, though it is not so far-reaching 
as is the case with iron, and the metal acquires certain 
properties making it especially suitable for many purposes. 
The so-called phosphor-bronze consists of a mass which 
besides copper contains a very small quantity of phosphorus, 
and shows properties rendering it especially desirable for 
some uses. 



CHAPTER IV. 

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 

From what has been said in the preceding chapters, it 
will be understood that the properties of the different 
metals vary very much and that but few possess properties 
in common. It will next be necessary to consider the 
changes which certain metals undergo by melting together 
or alloying. 

I. Liquation. When a solution fluid at the ordinary 
temperature is allowed to cool below its congealing point, 
the process frequently takes place in such a manner that as 
cooling progresses certain constituents of the solution con- 
geal first, while the solution still remaining liquid undergoes 
constant changes as regards its composition until the latter 
remains constant, when this solution also congeals. The 
solution congealing last is called the eutectic (most fluid) 
solution. However, on examining the congealed eutectic 
solution more closely it will be found that during cooling a 
disintegration of the constituents previously dissolved one 
in another has taken place, and that the solution now.forms 
only an intimate mixture of these constituents. When the 
temperature is raised the mixture again combines to the 
eutectic solution which with a further increase in the tem- 
perature redissolves the previously crystallized bodies. 

If, for instance, a common salt solution (sodium chloride 
solution) with 3.8 per cent, common salt be allowed to 
cool, there is formed at — 3.25 C. (26. 5 F.) ice free "from 
common salt, and the solution becomes richer in common 
salt. The formation of ice at this temperature continues 
till the solution contains 5.5 per cent, of common salt. If, 

(62) 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 63 

however, the temperature becomes lower, formation of ice 
again takes place and the solution becomes richer until at 
a temperature of — 22 ° C. ( — 7.6 F.) the eutectic solution 
with 23.5 per cent, of common salt remains behind, when 
ice is no longer separated and the whole congeals, disinte- 
grating, however, into an intimate mixture of common salt 
and ice. The entire congealed mass consists therefore of 
the previously formed ice crystals mixed with the finally 
congealed eutectic solution. If, however, a common salt 
solution containing more than 23.5 per cent, common salt 
be subjected to cooling, the common salt crystallizes and 
the solution becomes poorer until at — 22 C. ( — 7. 6° F.) 
it has again acquired the composition of the eutectic solu- 
tion and freezes as such. In this case the congealed mass 
consists therefore of the eutectic solution with imbedded 
common salt crystals. 

Many alloys show a similar behavior in cooling. The 
proof of this is furnished by the metallographic examina- 
tion, i. e., by grinding the fracture of *an alloy, polishing it 
and also treating it by chemical agents, or by oxidizing it 
by heating whereby the constituents assume different colors. 
The surface thus treated is then examined under the micro- 
scope. 

If, for instance, a melted silver-copper alloy* containing 
more than 72 per cent, of silver be allowed to cool, silver 
crystals are first separated, while an alloy poorer in silver 
still remains liquid. This separation of silver is continued 
until the content of silver has been reduced to 72 per cent., 
which takes place when the temperature has fallen to 
1404 F. This is the eutectic point, and the eutectic alloy 
which now, previous to congelation, no longer separates 
any constituents but solidifies throughout at that tempera- 
ture, consists, therefore, of J2 parts silver and 22 parts 
copper. In congealing it disintegrates, however, to an 

* Melting point of pure silver = 1760 F.; of pure copper = 1983. 2 F. 



64 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

intimate mixture of its constituents, which on reheating 
first dissolve again one in another, and with an increase in 
the temperature gradually dissolve the previously separated 
silver. By heating the ground surface of such an alloy 
rich in silver, the copper oxidizes and can under the mi- 
croscope be plainly distinguished from the non-oxidized 
silver. Fig. 3 shows, 480 times magnified, the ground 
surface of an alloy with 85 per cent, silver and 15 per cent, 
copper, which has thus been treated. The lighter portions, 

Fig. 3. 




a, are nearly pure silver ; the black portions, b, are the 
eutectic mixture consisting of 72 parts silver and 28 parts 
copper. 

If, on the other hand, the alloy contains less than 72 per 
cent, silver and more than 28 per cent, copper, copper is, 
in congealing, first separated till at 1404 F., the composi- 
tion of the eutectic alloy has again been reached and the 
latter also congeals. Fig. 4 shows, 480 times magnified, 
the appearance of an alloy with 35 per cent, silver, which 
has been treated in the manner previously described. The 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



65 



black portions, c, are the copper first separated ; b is the 
eutectic mixture of silver and copper which has been 
formed. 

Fig. 4. 







Fig. 5 shows, 480 times magnified, the eutectic alloy 

5 



66 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

with 72 parts silver and 28 parts copper ; it contains cop- 
per and silver as an intimate mixture. 

The alloys of lead and tin, the eutectic alloy of which 
contains 31 per cent, lead and 69 per cent, tin and congeals 
at 356 F., behave in a similar manner; also the alloys of 
lead and antimony, the eutectic alloy of which consists of 
87 per cent, lead and 13 per cent, antimony and congeals 
at 477 F., as well as numerous other alloys. Alloys con- 
taining three or more constituents also congeal, as a rule, 
not uniformly, and single constituents are first separated 
until the eutectic alloy which congeals last of all remains 
behind. It is, however, more difficult to recognize the 
processes taking place thereby than with alloys of two con- 
stituents. 

It may also happen that instead of the separate metal a 
definite chemical combination crystallizes from the congeal- 
ing alloy, as for instance, according to Le Chetalier, the 
compound SbCu 2 from copper-antimony alloys. 

This disintegration of an alloy homogeneous in a liquid 
state is called liquation. In metallurgical processes it is 
occasionally made use of for the purpose of separating a 
metal or an alloy richer in noble metal, from another metal 
or alloy (Pattinson's process for extracting silver from 
lead). However, in working metals liquation is always 
troublesome, and should be avoided as much as possible. 
Since the physical properties of an alloy — strength, duc- 
tility, hardness, color, etc. — are closely related to its aver- 
age composition, and as a slight change in the latter 
frequently produces not inconsiderable variations, the 
properties of a piece of metal solidified with liquation will 
not only be different and less suitable for the intended pur- 
pose than would be the case with uniform solidification, 
but in various parts of the same article variations will show 
themselves, which may injure its usefulness or render it 
entirely useless. Generally speaking liquation shows itself 
the plainer and the variation in the composition of the 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 67 

alloy becomes the greater, the slower the process of cool- 
ing the fused alloys is effected. Hence, rapid cooling of 
an alloy while solidifying is an effective means of prevent- 
ing liquation, or to limit it to a slighter degree. 

From this it will be seen that the properties of one and 
the same alloy may be changed by remelting and renewed 
cooling, if in one case liquation is more promoted or 
rendered more difficult than in another; and further that 
liquation will appear to a greater extent the thicker the 
cross sections of a casting are. 

Since in the solidification of liquid metals and alloys 
cooling progresses from the exterior towards the center, 
advancing more rapidly here and more slowly there, a con- 
centration of more refractory alloys usually takes place on 
the outside and one of more fusible alloys in the center ; 
but generally liquation is more perceptible in the center of 
a casting than on the outside. However, since many 
bodies expand, hence, decrease their specific gravity, at the 
moment of solidification, and therefore float upon the non- 
solidified surface (ice upon water, solid cast-iron upon 
fused), it will be understood that when liquation takes 
place, not only the exterior surfaces of the solidified piece 
of metal show a concentration of the more refractory alloy, 
but also the upper cross sections ; while in other cases 
where this behavior does not take place, where, briefly, the 
alloy solidifying first is specifically heavier than that re- 
maining fluid, it accumulates on the bottom of the piece of 
metal. Hence variations in the composition of the upper 
and lower cross-sections prove by no means, as has fre- 
quently been supposed, that a separation of alloys of differ- 
ent composition has taken place while in a fluid state, but 
only that the alloy first separated in consequence of liqua- 
tion possessed at that temperature a different specific 
gravity from the non-solidified more readily fusible alloy ; 
and from this it may be further inferred that in a cooled 
state the specific gravities of the separated alloys stand in 



68 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the same relation to each other as at the moment of liqua- 
tion, or in other words that, after cooling, the uppermost 
alloy is also specifically the lightest. 

However, the property of liquation does not show itself 
to the same extent in all alloys. In some it is so strong 
that it cannot be avoided even with as rapid cooling as 
possible, while others scarcely show a trace of it even with 
quite slow cooling. 

Most copper-tin alloys show a very distinct tendency to- 
wards liquation, which generally increases with the content 
of tin. From alloys richer in copper, crystals richer in tin 
separate in the slower cooling portions of the casting, 
which may be plainly distinguished from the actual alloy by 
their lighter color, and are called tin-stains. In alloys con- 
taining more than 50 per cent, tin, the upper cross-sections 
are, according to Riche, richer in tin, and the lower richer 
in copper ; in alloys poorer in tin no difference, however, is 
perceptible in the lower and upper cross-sections. 

The tendency of copper-tin alloys towards liquation is 

claimed to be overcome by the addition of small quantities 

of zinc. French pieces of ordnance examined by Riche 

contained 

Cu Sn Zn Pb 

In the interior.. . 89.44 8.91 1.39 0.16 

In the circumference 89.04 9.51 1.30 0.16 

while in the tin-stains accumulated around the axes of the 
pieces of ordnance, the content of tin amounted to 12.3 to 
14.5 per cent. At any rate liquation was not considerable; 
and, what is remarkable, the average composition shows a 
concentration of the content of tin towards the circum- 
ference.* 

* However, this proves by no means that the composition of the exterior 
parts, as found, accurately represents the composition of the alloy when 
originally solidifying. After solidification the crust formed on the circum- 
ference contracts, and thereby exerts a powerful pressure upon the more 
readily fusible alloys — in this case richer in tin — enclosed in the center, 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 69 

Copper-zinc alloys possess very little or no tendency to- 
wards liquation, and in this respect are favorably distin- 
guished from the copper-tin alloys. 

Copper-lead alloys show strong tendency towards liqua- 
tion. From cupriferous lead, the lead may, by careful 
heating, be melted out, the copper remaining behind in 
the form of so-called copper-thorns. 

Silver-copper alloys, as previously explained, show strong 
tendency towards liquation, a fact which is of considerable 
importance as regards the use of such alloys for coins, and 
renders the preparation of blanks of uniform composition 
more difficult. As previously pointed out the eutectic 
silver-copper alloy consists of 72 parts silver and 28 parts 
copper. In alloys with more than 72 per cent, silver, the 
content of the latter increases towards the center of the 
casting, while in alloys poorer in silver the content of cop- 
per increases in that direction. In an alloy with 69.5 per 
cent, silver, the upper cross-sections are, as a rule, richer 
in copper, and the lower richer in silver. 

Gold-copper alloys with from 23.7 to 92.5 per cent, gold, 
show, according to Levol, scarcely any sign of liquation 
after actual alloying of the two metals has taken place ; 
however, to effect this, especially with alloys richer in gold, 
several remeltings and frequent stirring are required. 

Gold-silver alloys show no tendency towards liquation 
after actual alloying has taken place. 

Lead-silver alloys possess strong tendency towards liqua- 
tion, as shown by the use made of this behavior in the Pat- 
tinson process. Levol found the content of silver consider- 
ably greater in the center of the cast and solidified alloys. 

Zinc-tin alloys also show considerable liquation, especi- 
ally when the content of zinc predominates. 

whereby they are forced into the pores of the solidified crust. In some 
alloys richer in tin (bell bronzes) these alloys solidifying last, and forced 
through the pores of the crust, frequently appear in the form of globules on 
the exterior surface of the casting and sometimes form masses of ex- 
crescences. 



yo THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

2. Specific Gravity. The specific gravity or density of 
alloys corresponds only in a few cases with that which 
would result by calculation from the specific gravities of 
the constituents, i. e., with the specific gravity which a 
purely mechanical mixture of the constituents would pos- 
sess. In some cases the specific gravity is lower than 
that calculated, expansion having taken place in alloying. 
More frequently it is higher than that found by calcula- 
tion, condensation having taken place. Sometimes an 
alloy possesses a higher specific gravity than that of its 
separate constituents. 

Expansion, i. e. decrease in the specific gravity, has been 
observed in copper-silver alloys, and lead-silver alloys with 
less than 30 per cent, silver; in tin-antimony alloys and 
lead-antimony alloys. Condensation has been found in 
alloys of copper with tin ; copper with zinc with a content 
of zinc between 35 and 80 per cent.; lead with gold; tin 
with silver, etc. As an example of a particularly strong 
condensation may serve the copper-tin alloy with 38 per 
cent, tin; its specific gravity being 8.91, while that of cop- 
per was found to be only 8.89 and that of tin 7.31. 

Many comprehensive investigations regarding the specific 
gravities of alloys have been made. However, the results 
of such investigations must be accepted with caution, be- 
cause, as is well known, the specific gravity of every metal 
varies between wide limits, and is dependent upon the 
manner of its previous working and treatment. Hence for 
every experiment not only the specific gravity of each sepa- 
rate metal used has to be accurately determined, but care 
must also be taken to avoid as much as possible all sources 
of error, which may readily arise from the presence of gas 
bubbles or small hollow spaces in castings, by either con- 
verting the metals into a fine powder, or by getting rid of 
the hollow spaces by mechanical means previous to deter- 
mining the specific gravity. With alloys it has further to 
be taken into consideration that in consequence of liqua- 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. J I 

tion the specific gravity varies in different places of the 
casting. Some investigators have committed an error in 
finding the calculated specific gravity by assuming it to be 
the arithmetical mean between the numbers denoting the 
two specific gravities, or, in other words multiplying the 
percentage weight of each constituent by its specific 
gravity, adding the results and dividing by ioo. The 
specific gravity should be calculated from the volumes, and 
not from the weights. Dr. Ure * gives the correct rule as 
follows : Multiply the sum of the weights into the products 
of the two specific gravity numbers for a numerator, and 
multiply each specific gravity number into the weight of 
the other body, and add the products for a denominator. 
The quotient obtained by dividing the said numerator by 
the denominator is the truly computed mean specific grav- 
ity of the alloy. Expressed in algebraic language, the 
above rule is 

M _( W+w)P p 

Pw+pW' 

where M is the mean specific gravity of the alloy, W and 
w the weights, and P and p the specific gravities of the 
constituent metals. t 

Of the determinations of the specific gravities of alloys 
the following have been selected as the most reliable. 

The determinations of the specific gravities of copper-tin 
alloys made by Riche and Thurston % are given in the an- 
nexed table. Riche determined the specific gravity with 
the assistance of metallic shavings which, to expel air en- 
closed between them, were boiled in the flask serving for 
the determination of the specific gravity. Thurston used 

*Ure's Dictionary. Vol. i, p. 49. 

f Report on a Preliminary Investigation of the Copper-tin Alloys. 
Washington, 1879. 

X Report on a Preliminary Investigation of the Copper-tin Alloys. 
Washington, 1879. 



72 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

small pieces as free from flaws as possible, and weighing 
from i^ to 2^ ounces each. These pieces were cut from 
a bar previously used for determining the strength. To 
cleanse them they were first washed in alcohol, dried, boiled 
two or three hours in water to expel the air enclosed in 
the pores, and, after allowing them to cool in the vessel 
used for boiling, were brought under the receiver of an air- 
pump to completely remove any particles of air remaining, 
and then quickly into a beaker filled with distilled water, in 
which they were weighed, being suspended by means of a 
very fine platinum loop to the beam of the balance. 

The numerical values found for the same alloys show, to 
be sure, quite considerable variations ; but comparing the 
results obtained as a whole, they agree in many important 
points. Both series show that when small quantities of tin 
are added to copper, the alloy, as might be expected on 
account of the smaller specific gravity of tin, becomes 
specifically lighter than copper, but as soon as the content 
of tin exceeds 10 per cent, the decrease in the specific 
gravity becomes less with an increasing content of tin than 
it should be according to calculation, i. e., with an increas- 
ing content of tin the alloys show an increasing condensa- 
tion (contraction). From an alloy with 20 per cent, on- 
ward, this condensation increases to such an extent that 
the specific gravity of the alloys increases instead of de- 
creases with the increasing content of tin, until, according 
to both series, it reaches the maximum in the alloy with 
38.3 per cent, tin (SnCu 3 ) and then gradually approaches 
again the specific gravity according to calculation. Ac- 
cording to Thurston's series the condensation is so con- 
siderable that alloys with 22.5 to 38.29 per cent, tin are 
specifically heavier than pure copper, while, according to 
Riche, the specific gravity of one alloy only (SnCu 3 ) ex- 
ceeds that of copper. Alloys with less than 10 per cent, 
tin show, according to Thurston, slight expansion, as well 
as, according to Riche, alloys with less than 16 per cent, 
copper. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



73 



Composition of the 


Specific Gravities. 


alloys examined. 


According to Riche. 


According to Thurston. 










1 


Difference. 






Difference. 






a 




H3 






"d 










3 




V 




, 




U 






u 

V 

o. 
a 


a 


MB 

1° 
Sfa 


•6 

a 

3 





rt s 
».2 


h a 
S.2 


T3 
C 

3 


OS 

"3 


a C 
a.2 


S.2 


o 





"n 


x « 


+■> 


O 


"ra 


x « 


** 


U 


H 


< 


fa 


U 


fa 


u 


fa 


U 


W 


u 


100-00 




Cu 


8.89 




— 





8.791 


_ 







98.10 


1. go 


SnCu 9 6 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.564 


— 


-- 


— 


97-So 


2.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.5II 


— 


— 


— 


96.27 


3-73 


SnCu 4 s 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.649 


8712 


0.063 


— 


92.80 


7.20 


SnCu 34 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.694 


— 


— 


— 


92-59 


7-50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.684 


— 


— 


— 


90.00 


10.00 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.669 


8.614 


— 


0.055 


89.00 


11.00 


SnCuie 


8.84 


8.69 


— 


0.15 


— 


— 


— 




87.50 


12.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.648 


— 


— 


— 


86.S7 


13-43 


SnCllia 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.681 


8.534 


— 


0.147 


84.33 


IS.67 


SnCu 10 


8.87 


8.60 


— 


0.27 






— 




82.50 


17-50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.792 


— 


— 


— 


81.15 


18.85 


SnCu 8 


8.84 


8.54 


— 


0.30 


— 


— 


— 


— 


80.00 


20.00 












8.740 


8.444 


— 


0.296 


79.02 


20.98 


SnCu T 


8.72 


8.50 


— 


0.22 




— 


— 


— 


77-50 


22.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.917 


— 


— 


— 


76-32 


23-68 


SnCu 6 


8.72 


8.46 


— 


0.26 


8.s65(?) 


— 


— 


— 


72.91 


27.09 


SnCu 5 


8,62 


8.40 


— 


0.22 




— 


— 


— 


72.50 


27-50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.925 


8.318 


— 


0.607 


70.00 


30.00 


— 


— 


— 




— 


8.932 





— 


— 


68.25 


31-75 


SnCiu 


8.75 


8.32 


— 


0.43 


8.938 


8.2S0 


— 


0.688 


67.50 


32.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.907 


— 


— 


— 


65.00 


35-00 


— 


— 


— 




— 


8.947 


— 


— 


— 


62.50 


37.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.956 


— 


— 


— 


61.71 


38.29 


SnCuj 


8.91 


8.21 


— 


0.70 


8.970 


8.i5o 


— 


0-820 


57.50 


42.59 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.781 


— 


— 


— 


56.32 


43-68 


Sn 6 Cui2 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8682 


— 


— 


— 


S2.50 


47.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.643 


— 


— 


— 


SI. 80 


48.20 


SnCu 2 


8.15 


8.04 


— 


o.ii 


8.560 


7-999 


— 


0-561 


47-95 


52.05 


SnjCuis 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.442 


— 


— \ 


— 


47-50 


52.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.446 


— 


— 


— 


44.63 


55-37 


Sn 2 Cu 3 


8-06 


7-93 


— 


o.i3 


8.312 


7-893 


— 


°-4i9 


42.50 


57-50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.437 


— 


— 


— 


41.74 


58.26 


Sn 3 Ciu 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.302 


— 


— 


— 


39-20 


60.86 


Sn 5 Cu 6 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.182 


— 


— 


— 


37.50 


62.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8.101 


— 


— 


— 


34-95 


65.05 


SnCu 


7.90 


7-79 


— 


0.1 1 


8.013 


7-755 


— 


0-258 


28.72 


71.28 


Sn 4 Cu 3 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.948 




— 


— 


27.50 


72.50 


_ ~ 1 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7-915 


— 


— 


— 


24.38 


75.62 


Sn s Cu 3 I 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.835 


— 


— 


— 


22.50 


77.50 


— i 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7-774 


— 


— 


— 


21.18 


78.82 


Sn 2 Cu 


7-59 


7.58 


— 


0.01 


7 770 


7-566 


— 


°-2I4 


17-50 


82.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.690 


— 


— 


— 


15.19 


84.81 


Sn 3 Cu 


7-44 


7-50 


0.06 


— 


7.657 


7.487 


— 


°-i70 


12.50 


87.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7-543 


— 


— 


— 


11.84 


88.16 


Sn 4 Cu 


7-31 


7.46 


0.15 


— 


7-552 


7-443 


— 


0-109 


g.70 


90.30 


Sn 6 Cu 


7.28 


7-43 


0.15 


— 


7.487 


7-415 


— 


0-072 


7-50 


92.50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7-417 


— 


— 


— 


4.29 


95.71 


Sni 2 Cu 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7-36o 


7-346 


— 


°-0I 4 


2.50 


97-50 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7-342 


— 


— 


— 


1. 11 


98.89 


Sn 4 sCu 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7-30S 


— 


— 


— 


0.55 


99-43 


Sn 96 Cu 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7.299 


— 


— 


— 


1 


100.00 


Sn 


7-31 


' 


1 


~ 


7- 293 


~ 


~ 1 


— 



By heating to a red heat copper-tin alloys with a certain 
content of tin and tempering in water, and vice versa by 



74 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

reheating and subsequent slow cooling, the specific gravity 
is changed in a remarkable manner. From a series of ex- 
periments made in this direction, Riche obtained the fol- 
lowing results : 

Alloys with 20.80 per cent. tin. 
Specific gravities. 

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. 

Cast 8.787 8.858 8.825 8.862 8.863 8.780 8.715 8.822 8.842 — 

Tempered 8.8238.9158.8638.8968.906 — — — — 8.747 

Annealed 8.817 8.907 8.847 8.886 8.894 8.808 8.739 8.844 3-863 — 

Tempered 8.8498.9278.8748.9078.922 — — — — 8.871 

Alloys with 18 per cent. tin. 

Specific gravities. 
1. 11 

Cast 8.737 8.873 

Annealed 8.733 8.863 

Tempered 8.763 8.91 1 

Annealed 8.753 8.889 

Tempered 8.775 8.926 

Tempered 8.786 8.927 

Alloys with 20 per cent. tin. 

From a cast block weighing 4 lbs. four bars each weigh- 
ing about 4 jounces were cut and used for the experi- 
ments. 



Specific gravities. 

1. 11. 

Tempered 8.704 8.719 

Annealed 8.712 8.728 

Tempered 8.730 8.747 

Annealed , 8.724 8.744 

Tempered 8.756 8.763 

Annealed 8.741 8.759 

Again annealed 8.751 8.769 

Tempered 8.775 8.792 



Specific" gravities. 

III. IV. 

Annealed 8.752 8.686 

Tempered 8.780 8.713 

Annealed 8.777 8.714 

Tempered 8.804 8.736 

Annealed 8.815 8.750 

Tempered 8.841 8.774 

Again tempered 8.850 8.787 

Annealed 8.807 8.760 



These experiments show that the specific gravity of cop- 
per-tin alloys with 18 to 21 per cent, tin is progressively 
increased by repeated tempering, while annealing has a 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 75 

contrary, but less powerful effect, i. e. the decrease in the 
specific gravity produced by annealing is unable to equalize 
the increase by tempering, so that by alternate tempering 
and annealing a constant average increase in the density 
remains perceptible. The limit above which a repetition of 
annealing produces no effect has not been determined. 

The increase in the specific gravities of the above-men- 
tioned alloys by tempering may probably be closely related 
to liquation decreased by rapid cooling, and the decrease 
by annealing to liquation promoted by slow cooling. 

Alloys poorer in tin, in which liquation, as a rule, is less 
perceptible, show, however, a different behavior. By re- 
peated tempering and annealing, Riche found the following 
specific gravities : 

Alloys with 12 per cent. tin. 

Specific gravities. 

Tempered 8.625 

Annealed 8.632 

Tempered 8.624 

Annealed , 8.635 • 

Tempered 8.632 

Alloys with 10 per cent. tin. 

Specific gravities. 

I. II. III. IV. 

Cast 8.564 8.677 8.684 8.491 

Tempered 8.516 8.635 8.657 8.428 

Annealed ....8.528 8.643 8.670 8.431 

Tempered 8. 532 8.645 8.671 8.437 

Annealed 8.536 8.648 8.674 8.434 

Tempered 8.529 8.648 8.673 8.436 

Annealed 8.526 8.643 8.676 8.436 

Tempered 8.526 8.626 8.664 8.436 

Further the same alloy : 

Specific gravities, 

v. VI. 

Cast 8.541 8.705 

Annealed 8.491 8.689 

Tempered 8.495 8.684 

Annealed 8.504 8.692 

Tempered 8.505 8.693 

Annealed 8.479 8.651 

Tempered — 8.661 



7 6 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Alloys with 6 per cent, tin 
Specific gravities. I 
I. 

Cast 8.S37 

Tempered 8.491 

Annealed 8.501 

Tempered 8.502 

Annealed 8.507 

Tempered 8.505 



Specific gravities. 



11. in. 

Cast 8.519 — 

Annealed 8.492 8.807 

Tempered 8.491 8.806 

Annealed 8.496 8.802 

Tempered 8.495 8.804 

Annealed 8.496 8.809 



A glance at the above tables shows that, as in alloys richer 
in tin, an increase in the specific gravity cannot be obtained 
by repeated tempering and annealing, but that rather a 
decrease takes place, and that in some cases the effect of 
one tempering results in a decrease of density, and of anneal- 
ing in an increase ; further, that the poorer the alloy is in 
tin the sooner the limit is reached at which further treat- 
ment of the alloy produces no change in the specific gravity. 

By mechanical working — hammering, pressing, rolling — 
the specific gravity of copper-tin alloys is increased. 

Copper-zinc alloys. By experiments executed in the 
same manner as with copper-tin alloys, Riche obtained the 
following results : 



Composition of th 
examined. 


e alloys 




Specific 


gravity. 














Difference. 




Zinc. 


Atomic 


Found. 


Calcu- 






Copper. 










formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100.00 


_ 




8.890 






_ 


90.65 


9-35 


ZnCu 10 


8.834 


8,707 


— 


0.127 


85-34 


14.66 


ZnCu 6 


8.584 


8.602 


0.018 


— 


79-51 


20.49 


ZnCu 4 


8.367 


8.489 


0.122 


— 


65.98 


34-02 


ZnCu 2 


8.390 


8.345 


— 


0.045 


59-26 


40.74 


Zn 2 Cu 3 


8.329 


8.119 


— 


0.210 


49 23 


50.76 


ZnCu 


8.304 


7-947 


— 


0-357 


39.27 


60.73 


Zn 3 Cu 3 


8.171 


7783 


— 


0.388 


32.66 


67.14 


Zn,Cu 


8.048 


7.679 


— 


0.369 


19-52 


80.48 


Zn 4 Cu 


7.863 


7.478 


— 


0.385 


10.82 


89.18 


Zn 8 Cu 


7-315 


7-351 


0.036 


— 




100.00 


Zn 


7.200 


— 


— 


— 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



77 



Similar figures were obtained by Calvert and Johnson. 
While with an increasing content of zinc a steady reduction 
in the specific gravity seems to take place, alloys with 40 
to 80 per cent, zinc show quite considerable contraction. 

A series of experiments similar to the above mentioned 
with copper-tin alloys made by Riche show 1, that the 
specific gravity of copper-zinc alloys richer in zinc (35 per 
cent.) is increased by mechanical working as well as by 
tempering, such increase, however, being largely and, occa- 
sionally almost entirely, equalized by annealing ; and 2, that 
the specific gravities of alloys poor in zinc (9 per cent.) are 
not effected by such treatment. 

Copper-zinc alloys. Karmarsch has determined the 
specific gravities of copper-silver alloys in a coined state 
(coins) to remove the influence of porosity, and found the 
values given in the subjoined table. 



Composition of the 
alloys examined. 




Specific 


: gravities. 








Difference. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Found. 


Calculated. 


Expansion. 


Contraction. 


100 





10.547 











94-4 


5-6 


10.358 


10.399 


0.041 


— 


89.3 


10.7 


10.304 


10.351 


0.047 


— 


81.0 


19.0 


10.164 


10.203 


0.039 


— 


75-0 


25.0 


10.065 


10.098 


0.033 


— 


66.3 


33-7 


9.927 


9-951 


0.024 


— 


62.5 


37-5 


9.870 


9.890 


0.020 


— 


56.25 


43-75 


9.76i 


9.786 


0.025 


— 


51.21 


48.79 


9.679 


9.706 


0.027 


— 


49.65 


50.35 


9-650 


9.681 


0.031 


— 


42.43 


57-57 


9-532 


9.568 


0.036 


— 


36.7 


63.3 


9-439 


9.482 


0.043 


— 


33-3 


66.7 


9.383 


9-430 


0.047 


— 


30.4 


69.6 


9-333 


9.386 


0.053 


— 


29-5 


70.5 


9-317 


9-371 


0.054 


— 


22.4 


77.6 


9-203 


9.269 


0.066 


— 


22.0 


78.0 


9.190 


9.264 


0.074 


— 


— 


100 


8.956 


~ 


~ 





78 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



The series throughout shows expansion, it being most 
pronounced in alloys richest in copper, then decreases reg- 
ularly to the alloy with 37.5 per cent, copper and from 
there on increases again with the increasing content of 
silver. Nevertheless the greatest expansion does not at- 
tain the same extent as that in copper-tin and copper-zinc 
alloys. 

Copper-gold alloys. Roberts has determined the specific 
gravities of some alloys richer in gold in the form of blanks, 
and obtained the following values : 



Composition of the 
alloys examined. 




Specifi 


c gravities. 












Difference. 


Gold. 


Copper. 


Found. 


Calculated. 


Expansion. 


Contraction. 


100 




19.3203 





_ 





98.01 


1.99 


18.8335 


I8-.8355 


— 


0.0030 


96.88 


3.12 


18.5805 


18.5804 


— 


0.0001 


95-83 


4.17 


18.3562 


18.3605 


0.0043 


— 


94.84 


5.16 


18.1173 


18.1378 


0.0205 


— 


93.85 


6.15 


17.9340 


17.9301 


— 


0.0039 


93.20 


6.80 


17.7911 


17.7956 


0.0045 


— 


92.28 


1-12 


17.5680 


17.6087 


0.0407 


— 


90.05 


9-95 


17.1653 


17.1750 


0.0097 


— 


88.05 


11-95 


16.6082 


16.8047 


— 


0.0015 


86.14 


13.86 


16.4832 


16.4630 


— 


0.0202 




100.00 


8.725 









According to the above table neither regularly progress- 
ing expansion nor contraction takes place. In most cases 
the difference between the found and calculated specific 
gravities is extremely small, and hence it may be supposed 
that a change in volume is not caused, at least not in the 
alloys examined. For practical purposes this is of import- 
ance in so far as it allows of calculating the content of gold 
in a gold coin from its specific gravity. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



79 



Silver-gold alloys. Determinations by A. Matthiessen 
gave the following results : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 




Specific 


gravities. 














Difference. 






Atomic 




Calcu- 






Silver. 


Gold. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


IOO. 




Ag 


10.468 


_ 


_ 




76.5 


23-5 


Ag 6 Au 


11.760 


11-715 


— 


0.045 


68.7 


31-3 


Ag 4 Au 


12.257 


12.215 


— 


0.042 


52.3 


47-7 


Ag 2 Au 


13.432 


13.383 


— 


0.049 


35-4 


64.6 


AgAu 


14.870 


14.847 


— 


0.023 


21.5 


78.5 


AgAu 2 


16.354 


16.315 


— 


0.039 


12.0 


88.0 


AgAu 4 


17-540 


17-493 


— 


0.047 


8-3 


91.7 


AgAu 6 


18.041 


17.998 


— 


0.043 




100. 


Au 


19-265 






~ — 



Hence in alloying the two metals contraction, though to 
an inconsiderable extent, takes place throughout. 
Lead-gold alloys, according to Matthiessen : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 




Specific gravities. 














Difference. 






Atomic 




Calcu- 






Lead. 


Gold. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100 




Pb 


11.376 








9i-3 


8.7 


Pb 10 Au 


11.841 


11.794 


— 


0.047 


84.0 


16.0 


Pb 5 Au 


12.274 


12. 171 


— 


0.103 


80.8 


19.2 


Pb 4 Au 


12.445 


12.346 


— 


0.099 


76.1 


23.9 


Pb 3 Au 


12.737 


12.618 


— 


0.119 


67.7 


32.3 


Pb 2 Au 


13.306 


13-103 


— 


0.203 


51.2 


48.8 


PbAu 


14.466 


14.210 


— 


0.256 


34.6 


65.4 


PbAu 2 


15.603 


I5-546 


— 


0.057 


20.8 


79.2 


PbAu 4 


17.013 


16.832 


— 


0.181 


— 


100 


Au 


19.265 






—_ 



8o 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Hence contraction takes place in all proportions and is 
considerably greater than in silver- gold alloys. 
Silver-lead alloys, according to Matthiessen : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 







Atomic 


Silver. 


Lead. 


formula. 


100. 




Ag 


67.6 


32.4 


Ag 4 Pb 


51-0 


49.0 


Ag 2 Pb 


34-2 


65.8 


AgPb 


20.6 


79-4 


AgPb 2 


II-5 


88.5 


AgPb 4 


4-5 


95-5 


AgPb 10 


2.0 


98.0 


AgPb 25 


— 


100 


Pb 



Found. 



10.468 
10.800 
10.925 

11.054 
11. 144 
1 1. 196 
11.285 
H-334 
11.376 



Specific gravities. 



Calcu- 
lated. 



10.746 
10.894 
11.048 

11. 175 
11.263 
11.327 
H-355 



Difference. 



Expan- 
sion. 



0.031 
0.067 
0.042 
0.021 



Contrac- 
tion. 



0.054 
0.031 
0.006 



The above table shows a quite regular course. The alloys 
richest in lead possess a less specific gravity than calculated, 
the difference rising with the content of silver until the 
latter amounts to 11.5 per cent. From here on the differ- 
ence decreases with a further increase in the content of 
silver, and with 34 per cent, silver contraction instead of 
expansion takes place, the extent of contraction growing 
also with the content of silver. 

Antimony-tin alloys, according to Long: 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



8l 



Compo 


sition of th 
examined. 


e alloys 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 


Anti- 


Tin. 


Atomic 


Found. 


Calcu- 












mony. 




formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


IOO. 




Sb 


6.713 




_ 


^^ m 


92.6 


7-4 


Sb 12 Sn 


6-739 


6.752 


0.013 


— 


89.2 


10.8 


Sb 8 Sn . 


6.747 


6.770 


0.023 


— 


88.1 


11.9 


Sb 4 Sn 


6.781 


6.817 


0.036 


— 


67.7 


32.3 


Sb 2 Sn 


6.844 


6.889 


0.045 


— 


5i.4 


48.6 


SbSn 


6.929 


6.984 


0.055 


— 


34-5 


65.5 


SbSn 2 


7.023 


7.082 


0.059 


— 


26.0 


74.0 


SbSn 3 ! 


7.100 


7- 133 


0.033 


— 


17.4 


82.6 


SbSn 5 , 


7.140 


7.186 


0.046 


— 


9-5 


90.5 


SbSn 10 


7.208 


7-234 


0.026 


— 


5-o 


95-0 


SbSn 20 : 


7.276 


7.262 


— 


0.014 


2.1 


97-9 


SbSn 50 j 


7.279 


7.281 


0.002 


— 


1.0 


99.0 


SbSn 100 i 


7.284 


7.287 


0.003 


— 


— 


100. 


Sn 


7.294 


~ 


~ 


~ 



Hence expansion takes place almost throughout, increas- 
ing from both ends of the series and reaching the highest 
extent in alloys containing from 50 to 65 per cent. tin. 
Deviations from the regular course of the series may prob- 
ably be due to fortuitous circumstances in the preparation 
of the alloys. 

Antimony -bismuth alloys, according to Holzmann : 
6 



82 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Composition of th 
examined. 


e alloys 




Specific j 


gravities. 














Difference. 


Anti- 




Atomic 




Calcu- 








Bismuth. 




Found. 








mony. 




formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 


Contrac- 






Sb 






sion. 


tion. 


100 




6.713 




_ 




54-o 


46.0 


Sb 2 Bi 


7.864 


7.856 


— 


0.008 


37-1 


62.9 


SbBi 


8.392 


8.385 


— 


0.007 


22.7 


77-3 


SbBi 2 


8.886 


8.888 


0.002 


— 


12.8 


87.2 


SbBi, 


9.277 


9.272 


— 


0.005 


8.9 


91. 1 


SbBi 6 


9-435 


9-433 


— 


0.002 


- ~~ 


100 


Bi 


9.823 


" 


~ 


~ 



The difference between calculated and found specific 
gravities is so small that, at least with alloys poorer in anti- 
mony, it may be supposed that the volume remains un- 
changed. A slight contraction seems to take place only 
with a higher content of antimony. 

Antimony-lead alloys, according to Matthiessen : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 




Specific 


gravities. 














Difference. 


Anti- 




Atomic 




Calcu- 








Lead. 




Found. 








mony. 





formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 


Sb 


6.713 










54-i 


45-9 


Sb 2 Pb 


8.201 


8.268 


0.067 


— 


37-i 


62.9 


SbPb 


8.989 


9-045 


0.056 


— 


22.7 


77-3 


SbPb 2 


9.811 


9.822 


O.OII 


— 


16.4 


83.6 


SbPb 3 


10.144 


10. 211 


0.067 


— 


10.5 


89.5 


SbPb 5 


10.586 


10.599 


0.013 


— 


5-5 


94-5 


SbPb 10 


10.930 


10.952 


0.022 


— 


2.3 


97-7 


SbPb 25 


11. 194 


1 1. 196 


0.002 


— 




100 


Pb 


11.376 


— 


— 


— 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



83 



Hence, as far as this series extends, expansion takes 
place throughout in alloying. In alloys with more than 22 
per cent, antimony, Riche also found expansion, but con- 
traction in alloys poorer in antimony and richer in lead, 
the maximum of 0.023 being reached in an alloy with about 
90 per cent, lead (SbPb 5 ). 

Calvert and Johnson found expansion in all antimony- 
lead alloys. 

Tin-cadmium alloys, according to Matthiessen : 



Composition of th 
examined. 


e alloys 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 




Cad- 


Atomic 




Calcu- 






Tin. 






Found. 










mium. 


formula. 


! 


lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 




Sn 


7.294 






_ 


86.1 


13-9 


Sn 6 Cd 


7-434 


7-456 


0.022 


— 


80.5 


19-5 


Sn 4 Cd 


1 7-489 


7.524 


0.035 


— 


73-2 


26.8 


Sn 2 Cd 


7.690 


7.687 


— 


0.003 


50.8 


49.2 


SnCd 


7.904 


7-905 


— 


0.001 


34-i 


65-9 


SnCd 2 


8.139 


8.137 


— 


0.002 


20.5 


79-5 


SnCd 4 


8.336 


8.335 


— 


0.001 


14.7 


85.3 


SnCd 6 


8.432 


8.424 


— 


0.008 


— 


100. 


Cd 


8.655 


— 


— 


— 



The alloys richer in tin plainly show expansion, which, 
however, disappears when the content of tin amounts to 
less than about 75 per cent. 

Tin-bismuth alloys, according to Carty: 



8 4 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Composition of th 
examined. 


e alloys 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 


Tin. 




Atomic 




Calcu- 






Bismuth. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 


,_ 


Sn 


7.294 








92.4 


7-6 


Sn 22 Bi 


7.438 


7-438 


— 


— 


69.0 


31.0 


Sn 4 Bi 


7-943 


7-925 


— 


0.018 


62.5 


37-5 


Sn 3 Bi 


8.112 


8.071 


— 


0.041 


52.7 


47-3 


Sn 2 Bi 


8.339 


8-305 


— 


0.034 


35.8 


64.2 


SnBi 


8.772 


8-738 


— 


0.034 


21.8 


78.2 


SnBi 2 


9.178 


9.132 


— 


0.046 


12.2 


87.8 


SnBi 4 


9-435 


9-423 


— 


0.012 


3-3 


96.7 


SnBi 8 


| 9-614 


9.606 


— 


0.008 


2.3 


97-7 


SnBi 12 


9-675 


9.674 


— 


0.001 


1-3 


98.7 


SnBi 20 


9-737 


9-731 


— 


0.006 


0-5 


99-5 


SnBi 60 


9-774 


9.792 


0.018 


— 




100. 


Bi 


9.823 




~ 





These alloys show contraction almost throughout, it 
reaching its greatest extent in the alloy with 78 per cent, 
bismuth, and from there on decreases with an increasing 
content of bismuth and decreasing content of tin. Riche 
obtained very similar results, he finding the maximum con- 
traction in the alloy Sn 2 Bi 5 . 

Tin-silver alloys, according to Holzmann : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



85 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 




Specific gravities. 














Difference. 






Atomic 




Calcu- 






Tin. 


Silver. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 





Sn 


7.294 










95-1 


4.9 


Sn 18 Ag 


7.421 


7.404 


— 


0.017 


90.6 


9.4 


Sn 9 Ag 


7-551 


7-507 


— 


0.044 


86.5 


13.5 


Sn 6 Ag 


7.666 


7.603 


— 


0.063 


76.3 


23-7 


Sn 3 Ag 


7-963 


7-858 


— 


0.105 


68.2 


31.8 


Sn 2 Ag 


8.223 


8.071 


— 


0.152 


52.2 


47-8 


SnAg 


8.828 


8-543 


— 


0.205 


34-9 


65.1 


SnAg 2 


9-507 


9.086 


— 


0.421 


21. 1 


78.9 


SnAg 4 


9-953 


9.585 


— 


0.368 


~ 


100. 


Ag 


10.468 









All these alloys show considerable contraction, which gen- 
erally increases with the content of silver and reaches its 
maximum with 65 per cent, silver. 

Tin-lead alloys, according to Long : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 






Atomic 




Calcu- 






Tin. 


Lead. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 


_ 


Sn 


7.924 








77-0 


23.0 


Sn 6 Pb 


7.927 


7.948 


0.021 


— 


69.0 


31-0 


Sn 4 Pb 


8.188 


8.203 


0.015 


— 


52-7 


47-3 


Sn 2 Pb 


8.779 


8.781 


0.002 


— 


35-8 


64.2 


SnPb 


9.460 


9-474 


0.014 


— 


21.8 


78.2 


SnPb, 


10.080 


10.136 


0.056 


— 


12.2 


87.8 


SnPb< 


10.590 


10.645 


0.055 


— 


8-5 


9i-5 


SnPb 6 


10.815 


10.857 


0.042 


— 




100. 


Pb 


11.376 


— 


— 


— 



All the tin-lead alloys examined show expansion, the 



86 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



maximum being reached with a content of lead of about 80 
per cent. Pillichody obtained similar results, only he 
found considerably greater expansion (minimum 0.29 in 
the alloy SnPb 4 ; maximum in the alloy SnPb); Kupffer, 
Thompson, as well as Calvert and Johnson, found expan- 
sion throughout. 

Tin-gold alloys, according to Holzmann : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 






Atomic 




Calcu- 






Tin. 


Gold. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 




Sn 


7.294 








96.6 


3-4 


Sn 50 Au 


7.441 


7.446 


0.005 


— 


90.7 


9-3 


Sn 15 Au 


7.801 


7.786 


— 


0.015 


84.2 


15.8 


Sn 9 Au 


8.118 


8.092 


— 


0.026 


77-9 


22.1 


Sn 6 Au 


8.470 


8.452 


— 


0.018 


70.3 


29.7 


Sn 4 Au 


8.931 


8.951 


0.020 


— 


63.8 


36.2 


Sn 3 Au 


9-405 


9.407 


0.002 


— 


59-5 


40.5 


Sn 5 Au 2 


9-715 


9-743 


0.028 


— 


54-0 


46.0 


Sn 2 Au 


10.168 


10.206 


0.038 


— 


47-0 


53-0 


Sn 3 Au 2 


10.794 


10.885 


0.091 


— 


37-0 


63.0 


SnAu 


n.833 


1 1 .978 


0.145 


— 


22.7 


77-3 


SnAu, 


14-243 


14.028 


— 


0.216 


12.8 


87.2 


SnAt^ 


16.367 


15-913 


— 


0-454 




100. 


Au 


19.265 




~ 





This series exhibits a peculiar course : The alloys richest 
in gold show strong contraction, those with a medium 
content of gold, expansion, and those lowest in gold, again 
slight contraction. It must, however, be remarked that 
with the great difference in the specific gravities of the 
separate materials constituting the alloys, every small varia- 
tion in the actual specific gravity, and that upon which the 
calculation is based, is more perceptible than with approxi- 
mately equal specific gravities, and hence a small error — 
especially in the last mentioned contraction — may perhaps 
be supposed. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 87 

Cadmium-bismuth alloys, according to Matthiessen : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 


Cad- 


Bismuth. 


Atomic 


Found. 


Calcu- 












mium. 




formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 




Cd 


8.655 


_ 




_ 


61.7 


38.3 


Cd 3 Bi 


9.079 


9.067 


— 


0.012 


51.8 


48.2 


Cd 2 Bi 


9-195 


9.181 


— 


0.014 


35-0 


65.0 


CdBi 


9.388 


9-38o 


— 


0.008 


21.2 


78.8 


CdBi 2 


9-554 


9-550 


— 


0.004 


11.8 


88.2 


CdBi, 


9.669 


9.668 


— 


0.001 


6.3 


93-7 


CdBi 8 


9-737 


9.740 


0.003 


-!- 


4-3 


95-7 


CdBi 13 


9.766 


9.766 


— 


— 


— 


100. 


Bi 


9.823 









These alloys show slight contraction, increasing toward 
the middle of the series until the quantity of both metals is 
approximately the same. 

Cadmium-lead alloys, according to Holzmann : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 


Cad- 




Atomic 




Calcu- 








Lead. 




Found. 








mium. 




formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 




Cd 


8.655 




_ 


_ 


77.2 


22.8 


Cd 6 Pb 


9.160 


9.173 


0.013 


— 


68.2 


31-8 


Cd 4 Pb 


9-353 


9.364 


O.OII 




51-8 


48.2 


Cd 2 Pb 


9-755 


9.780 


0.025 




35-0 


65.0 


CdPb 


10.246 


10.246 


— 


— 


21.2 


78.8 


CdPb 2 


| 10.656 


10.663 


0.007 


— 


11.8 


88.2 


CdPb< 


10.950 


10.966 


0.016 


— 


8.3 


91.7 


CdPb 6 


i 1 1 .044 


11.088 


0.044 


— 


~ 


100. 


Pb 


11.376 


"■ 


~ 


~~ 



88 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



This series is not distinct, but expansion, which gener- 
ally increases with the content of lead, may be inferred 
from it. 

Bismuth-silver alloys, according to Holzmann : 



Compo 


sition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 






Atomic 




Calcu- 






Bismuth. 


Silver. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 


Contrac- 






Bi 






sion. 


tion. 


100. 


_ 


9.823 








99.0 


1.0 


Bi 50 Ag 


9.813 


9.829 


0.016 


— 


97-8 


2.2 


Bi 24 Ag 


9.820 


9.836 


0.016 


— 


96.0 


4.0 


Bi 12 Ag 


9-836 


9.848 


0.012 


— 


92.0 


8.0 


Bi 6 Ag 


9-859 


9.871 


0.012 


— 


88.5 


".5 


Bi 4 Ag 


9.899 


9.893 


— 


0.006 


79-4 


20.6 


Bi 2 Ag 


9.966 


9.949 


— 


0.017 


65.8 


34-2 


BiAg 


10.068 


10.034 


— 


0.034 


49.0 


51.0 


BiAg 2 


10.197 


10.141 


— 


0.056 


32.5 


67-5 


BiAg, 


10.323 


10.249 


— 


0.074 




100. 


Ag 


10.468 






~ 



The alloys richest in bismuth exhibit slight expansion, 
but contraction with an increasing content of silver. 
Bismuth-lead alloys, according to Carty : 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



8 9 



Composition of th 
examined. 


e alloys 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 






Atomic 




Calcu- 






Bismuth. 


Lead. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 




Bi 


9.823 








95-2 


4.8 


Bi 20 Pb 


9.893 


9.887 


— 


0.006 


93-5 


6.5 


Bi 16 Pb 


9-934 


9.902 


— 


0.032 


88.8 


11. 2 


Bi 8 Pb 


10.048 


9-974 


— 


0.074 


80.0 


20.0 


Bi 4 Pb 


10.235 


10.048 


— 


0.137 


66.6 


33.4 


Bi 2 Pb 


10.538 


10.290 


— 


0.248 


50.0 


50.0 


BiPb 


10.956 


10.541 


— 


0.415 


33-4 


66.6 


BiBb 2 


11. 141 


10.805 


— 


0.336 


25.0 


75-0 


BiPb 3 


11. 161 


10.942 


— 


0.219 


20.0 


80.0 


BiPb, 


1 1. 188 


11.026 


— 


0.162 


16.7 


83.3 


BiPb 5 


11. 196 


11.083 


— 


0.113 


7-7 


92.3 


BiPb 12 


1 1 .280 


11.238 


— 


0.042 


~~~ 


100. 


Bi 


11.376 









These alloys show contraction increasing regularly from 
both ends of the series, and reaching the maximum in the 
alloy with 50 parts bismuth and 50 parts lead. Similar 
results were obtained by Riche. The contraction is con- 
siderable and exceeds that of nearly all other alloys. 

Bismuth-gold alloys, according to Holzmann : 



90 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Compo 


I 
sition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 












Difference. 






Atomic 




Calcu- 






Bismuth. 


Gold. 




Found. 












formula. 




lated. 


Expan- 


Contrac- 













sion. 


tion. 


100. 


Bi 


9.823 







_ 


97-6 


2.4 


Bi 40 Au 


9.942 


9-935 


— 


0.007 


95-4 


4.6 


Bi M Au 


10.076 


10.046 


— 


0.030 


89.4 


10.6 


Bi 8 Au 


10.452 


10.360 


— 


0.092 


80.8 


19.2 


Bi<Au 


11.025 


10.840 


— 


0.185 


67.8 


32.2 


Bi 2 Au 


12.067 


n.659 


— 


0.408 


51.3 


48.7 


BiAu 


13.403 


12.898 


— 


0.505 


34-5 


65.5 


BiAu, 


14.844 


14.462 


— 


0.382 




100. 


Au 


19-265 


— 


— 


— 



With an increasing content of gold the alloys show at 
first considerable contraction, which reaches the maximum 
with about 50 per cent, of gold, and then decreases with a 
further increase in gold. 

Tin-mercury alloys {tin amalgams), according to Holz- 
mann : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 




Mercury. 

46.3 

63-3 

77-5 

100. 


Atomic 
formula. 


Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 

9.282 
10.313 
11.373 


Difference. 


Tin. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 
53-7 
36.7 
22.5 


Sn 
Sn 2 Hg 
SnHg 
SnHg 2 

Hg 


7.294 

9-362 

10.369 

n.456 

13-573 


— 


0.080 
0.056 
0.083 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



91 



These alloys show perceptible and approximately equal 
contraction. The same results were obtained by Calvert 
and Johnson. 

Lead-mercury alloys {lead amalgams), according to 
Matthiessen : 



Composition of the alloys 
examined. 


Specific gravities. 




Mercury. 


■ 
Atomic 
formula. 


Found. 


Calcu- 
lated. 


Difference. 


Lead. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Contrac- 
tion. 


100. 

67.4 
50.8 

34-1 


32.6 

49-2 

65.9 

100. 


Pb 
Pb 2 Hg 
PbHg 
PbHg, 

Hg 


ir.376 
11.979 
12.484 
12.815 
13.573 


12.008 
12.358 
12.734 


0.029 


0.126 
0.081 



General conclusions. All the alloys examined may be 
divided into three groups : 



02 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Group I. 



Alloys which plainly 
show contraction: 

Copper-tin. 

Copper-zinc with 35 to 
80 per cent. zinc. 

Silver-gold (slight con- 
traction). 

Lead-gold. 

Lead-silver with more 
than 30 per cent, sil- 
ver. 

Tin-bismuth. 

Tin-silver. 

Tin-gold with more than 
75 per cent. gold. 

Cadmium-bismuth with 
more than 10 per cent, 
cadmium (slight con- 
traction). 

Bismuth-silver with 
more than 10 per cent, 
silver. 

Bismuth-lead. 

Bismuth-gold. 

Tin-mercury. 

Lead-mercury with 
more than 40 per cent, 
mercury. 



Group II. 



Alloys which plainly 

show expansion: 
Copper-silver. 
Lead-silver with more 

than 70 per cent. lead. 
Antimony-tin. 
Antimony-lead. 
Tin-cadmium with more 

than 75 per cent. tin. 
Tin-lead. 
Tin -go Id with more 

than 25 per cent. tin. 
Cadmium-lead. 



Group III. 



Alloys which do not 
show plainly either 
expansion or con- 
traction: 

Copper-gold. 

Antimony-bismuth. 

Tin-cadmium with less 
than 75 per cent. tin. 



No definite regularity in the behavior of the metals can 
be recognized. While some metals, for instance, bismuth, 
gold, tin, produce chiefly contraction, and others, for in- 
stance, lead, antimony, expansion, there are still others, 
such as copper, tin, cadmium, which appear irregularly in all 
the groups, and there can be no doubt that certain chemical 
processes or actions of the separate metals upon one another 
play a role in this respect. If, for instance, a metal is 
capable of dissolving its own oxides (copper dissolves 
cuprous oxide, etc.) and decreasing thereby its specific 
gravity, and it is alloyed with another metal which acts in 
a reducing manner upon the dissolved oxide, without that 
the newly formed product of oxidation is dissolved, con- 
traction will evidently take place. But if, on the contrary, 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 93 

a metal, for instance, silver, possesses while in a liquid state, 
the power of dissolving oxygen, which is liberated from the 
pure metal during the process of solidifying, and this metal 
is alloyed with another metal which is oxidized by the dis- 
solved oxygen and whose product of oxidation is dissolved 
by the metal bath, (copper), the specific gravity will evi- 
dently be decreased in consequence of this solution of 
oxides, and expansion take place. 

From such or similar processes many apparent contra- 
dictions or irregularities in the series of specific gravities 
might also be deduced. 

3. Crystallization. It has previously been mentioned 
that various alloys show a decided tendency towards crys- 
tallization, which, however, does not furnish a proof— as 
has frequently been supposed — of the presence of chemical 
combinations of the metals with each other. 

If the alloy consists of metals which crystallize in the 
same system, the crystals of the alloy also belong, as a rule, 
to this system ; otherwise the alloy generally crystallizes in 
one of the systems of the separate metals. 

Copper-tin alloys usually crystallize in the hexagonal 
system. In an alloy of 19 parts copper with 81 parts tin, 
Rammelsberg found regular hexagonal prisms. From alloys 
richer in copper (bronzes), crystals several centimeters fn 
length may, according to Kiinzel, be obtained by allowing 
an iron plate to float upon the liquid metal-bath not heated 
too much above the fusing point. The crystals deposit on 
the plate with their principal axis at a right angle towards 
the cooling surface of the plate, and can be lifted together 
with the latter from the liquid metal. 

Copper-zinc alloys crystallize nearly all in octahedrons of 
the monometric system, and in the hollow spaces of castings 
octahedral formations of considerable size are not unfre- 
quently found, the composition of which by no means shows 
always a chemical combination composed according to 
atomic proportions. On the other hand, an alloy which 



94 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

corresponds to the chemical formula ZnCu (50.7 parts 
zinc, 49.3 parts copper) shows a peculiar long-fibrous tex- 
ture, and according to Calvert and Johnson, crystallizes in 
prisms frequently over 1 inch in length. 

Antimony -zinc alloys in all proportions of from 20 to 70 
per cent, zinc yield beautifully developed crystals of the 
rhombic system ; those richer in zinc being generally prisms, 
and those poorer in zinc, octahedrons. 

Gold-silver, lead-silver and silver-mercury alloys crystal- 
lize in the monometric system. 

Gold-tin alloys with a content of gold between 27 and 
43 per cent,, and moreover, in all possible proportions by 
weight, crystallize in the dimetric system. 

Iron-tin alloys crystalize in the dimetric system. Such 
an alloy containing about 80.5 per cent, tin and 19.5 per 
cent, iron remains behind, according to Rammelsberg, in 
quadrangular prisms, if Banca tin is dissolved in hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Iron-manganese alloys, which, as a rule, contain in ad- 
dition 5 to 7 per cent, carbon, frequently crystallize in 
finely developed rhombic prisms. The largest and most 
perfect crystals are found in alloys with 30 to 60 per cent, 
manganese, though alloys richer in manganese also show 
distinct formations of crystals, while in alloys with less than 
25 per cent, manganese the independent crystals are smaller 
and of more rare occurrence. 

For the practice the crystallization of alloys is of import- 
ance only in so far as the development of crystals generally 
goes hand in hand with a deterioration in the properties — 
decrease in strength, ductility, etc. — and besides crystal- 
lization is, as a rule, closely related to liquation. But the 
more slowly a casting is cooled the more opportunity the 
metal has to follow its inclination towards crystallization 
or liquation, and hence, it may be laid down as a general 
rule that crystallization should be rendered difficult by 
rapid cooling of the castings. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 95 

4. Strength. The tensile strength is most frequently 
determined, the other kinds of strength, such as compres- 
sive strength, etc., as a rule, though hot always increasing 
and decreasing with the tensile strength, and the latter is 
here meant, when speaking of strength except when other- 
wise stated. 

Like the strength of a pure metal, that of an alloy also 
depends to a considerable extent on the manipulations to 
which it has previously been subjected. The strength of 
many metals and alloys can be more than doubled by 
mechanical manipulation in the cold state — hammering, 
rolling, drawing — and this has to be taken into account in 
comparing the strength of alloyed and non-alloyed metals. 
It would be a blunder to compare the strength of a cast 
metal with that of a wire or a wrought bar of an alloy pre- 
pared from that metal. The shape and size of the cross- 
section have also to be taken into consideration; generally 
speaking, the strength is the greater the smaller the cross- 
section is. 

In regard to the influences exerted upon the strength of 
metals by alloying the following general law may be laid 
down : 

By the absorption of a foreign body the strength of 
metals is increased. It grows with the content of the for- 
eign body until the latter has reached a certain proportion 
which varies in individual cases. When this limit has been 
passed the strength again decreases, frequently with great 
rapidity, provided the foreign body itself does not possess 
greater strength than the metal. • 

The content of the foreign body at which the above- 
mentioned turning-point appears varies very much. With 
some bodies it lies below i per cent, of the weight of the 
alloy; while with others the strength of the alloy only 
reaches its maximum when the quantity of the foreign body 
amounts to nearly that of the actual metal. 

Metals or metalloids which themselves possess but little 



96 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

strength may also to a considerable degree increase the 
strength of a metal with which they are alloyed in definite 
proportions. Examples of this are quite numerous. 

According to Prof. Robert H. Thurston *, the strength 
of copper may be considerably increased by the addition of 
tin, though the latter by itself possesses but little strength. 
The increase in the tensile aud absolute strength appears 
to attain its maximum with a content of about 17.5 per 
cent, tin ; with a further enrichment in the content of tin 
it rapidly decreases and finally approaches gradually, though 
not with entire uniformity, that of tin. The crushing 
strength, however, reaches its maximum only with 30 per 
cent. tin. The brittleness of the alloy increases in all cases 
with the content of tin, and only when the latter consider- 
ably exceeds 50 per cent, is there, in this respect, a gradual 
approach to the properties of pure tin. Since, however, 
with a content of over 20 per cent, tin, the strength rapidly 
decreases and brittleness increases in a still greater degree, 
it is evident that where great strength is a requisite, alloys 
richer in tin are quite worthless. The torsional strength of 
copper-tin alloys is also greatest with a content of 17.5 per 
cent, tin ; it decreasing rapidly with a higher percentage. 

An addition of aluminium exerts a still more pronounced 
effect upon the strength of copper than tin. Cast alumi- 
nium possesses a tensile strength of about 10 kilogrammes 
per square millimeter, and cast copper about 19.50 kilo- 
grammes. With aluminium-copper alloys with an increas- 
ing content of aluminium, Tetmajer obtained the follow- 
ing results : 

Content of aluminium, per cent 5.5 8.5 9 9.5 10 11 11.5 

Tensile strength in kilos, per sq. mm.. 44 50 57.5 62 64 68 80 

With this content of aluminium the limit of the utmost 
strength would appear to have been reached. 

* Report on a Preliminary Investigation of the Properties of Copper- 
Tin Alloys. Washington, 1879. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 97 

Small additions of zinc also increase the strength of cop- 
per, though in the cast state its tensile strength is not 
much more than 2.0 kilogrammes per square millimeter 
and in a rolled state scarcely more than 15 kilogrammes. Its 
influence shows itself, however in a less pronounced man- 
ner than an addition of tin or aluminium. Mallet found 
the following average values for the tensile strength of 
zinc-copper alloys : 

Content of zinc, per cent 10 to 11. 5 12 to 25.5 34 to 66 68.5 

Tensile strength in kilos, per sq. mm. 18.5 20.0 16.0 3.0 

According to these figures the strength decreases rapidly 
when the content of zinc exceeds 25 per cent. However, 
Charpy's experiments with rolled test-bars, annealed after 
rolling, gave the following values : 

Content of zinc, per cent 0.0 10. 1 18.4 30.2 40.4 44.7 49.7 

Tensile strength in kilos, per sq. mm. 21.8 24.1 26.8 28.9 38.4 48 10. 

According to these tests the limit of the utmost strength 
is reached with a content of about 45 per cent. zinc. The 
sample with 49.7 per cent, zinc could no longer be rolled 
and had therefore to be tested in a cast state after it had 
been milled and annealed like the other test-bars. 

The increase in strength which can be brought about by 
alloying is very plainly shown with gold and silver. The 
usual addition to these metals consists of copper. While 
according to Karmarsch, hard-drawn wire of pure gold 
possesses an average strength of 26 kilogrammes per 
square millimeter and that of copper 39 kilogrammes, gold 
wire with 10 per cent, copper shows a strength of 45.8 
kilogrammes. Pure hard-drawn silver wire possesses an 
average strength of 36 kilogrammes per square millimeter, 
while an alloy of 75 parts silver with 25 parts copper shows 
an average strength of yy kilogrammes. 

By the addition of a third metal to an alloy consisting ot 
two metals it is sometimes possible to bring about an addi- 
7 



98 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tional increase in strength. This may be shown by various 
examples. Copper-zinc alloys in themselves possess, as 
previously mentioned, less strength than copper-tin or 
copper-aluminium alloys, but their strength may be re- 
markably increased by the addition of small quantities of tin, 
iron, aluminium. Thus Thurston, for instance, found the 
tensile strength of a cast alloy of 55 parts copper, 43 parts 
zinc and 2 parts tin equal to 45.7 kilogrammes per square 
millimeter.* The so-called Delta metal, which is at present 
much used and will be referred to later on, contains es- 
sentially 55 to 60 parts copper, 43 to 39 parts zinc together 
with 1 to 1.5 parts iron. It is said to possess a tensile 
strength of 35 kilogrammes per square millimeterf, while 
a pure zinc-copper alloy shows scarcely more than a strength 
of 25 kilogrammes. By the addition of 1 part aluminium to 
a cast alloy of 57 parts copper and 42 parts zinc, the 
strength of the latter can be increased to more than 40 
kilogrammes per square millimeter, and by adding 4 per 
cent, of aluminium, to more than 60 kilogrammes. 

The strength of gold wires alloyed with copper is also 
still further increased by the addition of a certain quantity 
of silver as a third metal. According to Karmarsch, hard- 
drawn wire of 58.3 parts gold, 29.7 parts copper, and 12 
parts silver, possesses an average strength of 102 kilo- 
grammes per square millimeter. 

Similar cases may frequently be observed. It must, how- 
ever, be mentioned that by the addition of a third metal a 
decrease in strength may sometimes be brought about. 
Tin-copper alloys of great strength may, for instance, suffer 
in strength by the introduction of zinc. Thus, Uchatius 
found the tensile strength of cold rolled bars of 

* Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers. Vol. X. 
tin Glaser's Annalen, Vol. 26, p. 246, the strength of the rolled and an- 
nealed alloy is given as 42.8 kilogrammes per square millimeter. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 99 

Copper qo 88 89 91 

Tin 10 10 10 8.5 [Parts. 

Zinc — 2 1 0.5 J 

50.66 30.20 41.70 38.00 kilogrammes 
per square millimeter. 

The difference in this case is so great as to lead'to the 
conclusion that the results were affected by other unknown 
causes. In fact Kiinzel found that an addition of 2 per 
cent, zinc to tin-copper alloys with about 19 per cent, tin 
rather increases than decreases their strength. Reliable 
comparisons regarding the possible injurious effect of a 
third body are, however, difficult to obtain. 

In alloying a metal the limit of elasticity increases stead- 
ily with the breaking strength and, as a rule, to a greater 
extent than the strength; limit of elasticity and breaking 
weight move more closely together. The limit of elasticity 
usually increases still further when, with the increase 0/ 
the foreign body added, the highest degree of strength has 
already been attained, and a decrease in strength reap- 
pears; limit of elasticity and strength sometimes finally 
converge. 

This law is not without importance for the employment 
of alloys. The more closely limit of elasticity and strength 
lie together, the greater the danger of fracture in case — 
intentionallly or unintentionally — the limit of elasticity is 
exceeded when the material is subjected to stress, and the 
more brittle the material will be. The material is thereby 
rendered unsuitable as well for mechanical working by 
forging, rolling, pressing, drawing, as for use for the manu- 
facture of articles subject to shocks and concussion (ord- 
nance, parts of machinery, bells). 

Thurston in investigating the strength of copper-tin 
alloys found 



IOO THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

limit of elasticity 
the proportion — : 

strength 

with pure copper ; 0.518 

with alloys with 10 per cent, tin 0.586 

with alloys with 12.5 per cent, tin 0.675 

with alloys with 23.7 per cent, tin 1 .000 

Hence, with alloys with 23.7 per cent, tin limit of elasti- 
city and strength are equal and the former cannot be ex- 
ceeded, without danger of fracture, when the alloy is sub- 
ject to stress. The alloy does not stand a permanent 
change of form ; it is very brittle. A decrease in this 
respect appeared only when the content of tin amounted to 
74 per cent, and the strength had been reduced to about 4 
kilogrammes per square millimeter. 

Similar observations have been made with various other 
alloys, though determinations of the limit of elasticity of 
different alloys of the same metals have only in isolated 
cases been made. 

The tenacity (as contrasted with brittleness) is more 
frequently measured by the change in form of the test-piece 
previous to breaking when tested for strength. Hence, in 
testing the tensile strength by the elongation, referred to 
the original length, which takes place ; or, though more 
seldom, by the decrease in the cross-section of the fracture. 
The greater this change in form is the more mechanical 
work is consumed for it, and the less the danger of sudden 
fracture under the effect of a shock. 

The aluminium-copper alloys examined by Tetmajer, the 
strength-values of which have been previously given, 
showed, when fractured, the following elongations : 

Content of aluminium, per cent 5.5 8.5 9 9.5 10 11 n. 5 

Elongation per cent, of the original 
length 64 52.5 32 19 11 1 0.5 

Of the zinc-copper alloys with various additions of alumin- 
ium mentioned on p. 98, the alloy poorest in aluminium 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. IOI 

(i per cent, aluminium ; strength 40 killogrammes) showed 
an elongation of 50 per cent., and the alloy richest in alu- 
minium (4 per cent, aluminium; strength 69 kilogrammes) 
an elongation of only 6.5 per cent. 

Exceptions to this rule are especially perceptible when 
one of the alloyed metals contains, while in a non-alloyed 
state, oxygen combinations, for instance, the previously 
mentioned cuprous oxide in copper, which injure the 
tenacity and are disintegrated by the metal added, oxygen 
being evolved. In such cases the tenacity can be increased 
by the addition of the second metal, and it decreases only 
when the content of the second metal exceeds a certain 
proportion. Thus in his investigations of the zinc-copper 
alloys mentioned on p. 97, Charpy found the elongations 
as follows : 

Content of zinc, per cent 0.0 10. 1 18.4 30.2 40.4 44.7 49.7 

Elongation per cent 31.6 36.0 41.4 56.7 35.2 18.3 2.0 

Strength in kilos 21.8 24.1 26.8 28.9 38.4 48.0 10. 

Hence, in this case, the alloy with 30 per cent, zinc proved 
the most tenacious. However in such researches as well as 
in the determination of the breaking load, contingencies 
sometimes play a role. 

5. Hardness. Hardness so far as it is applied to the 
resistance a material opposes to the penetration of a foreign 
body, for instance, in working with cutting tools, or to a 
permanent change in the position of its smallest particles, 
as in forging, pressing, rolling, drawing, forms a special 
.kind of the properties of strength. By alloying metals the 
hardness is scarcely ever reduced, while in numerous cases 
it is greater than that of the separate metals constituting 
the alloys, Two comparatively soft metals frequently yield 
an alloy of considerably greater hardness than possessed by 
each separate constituent, and in working metals for articles 
of use this increase in hardness and consequent power of 
resisting mechanical wear is frequently the only reason for 



102 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloying them with other metals. This increase in hardness 
is prominently shown in various copper alloys, and is pro- 
duced chiefly by tin which in a pure state is comparatively 
soft. 

There is, however, a difference of opinion as to the most 
reliable method for determining the degree of hardness. 
As a rule, a pointed tool is used for the purpose of scratch- 
ing or producing a depression in the surface of the article 
to be tested while under a fixed load ; the less deep the 
tool penetrates, the harder the material. In this manner 
the influence of the alloy upon the degree of hardness of 
the metals has also been frequently determined. 

Copper-tin alloys very plainly show this influence. Pure 
copper is harder than pure tin ; nevertheless a content of 
5 parts tin in 95 parts copper, renders the alloy almost 
twice as hard as pure copper. With a further increase in 
the content of tin, the hardness also increases considerably 
until the alloy contains about 20 parts tin and 80 parts 
copper. With a further increase in the content of tin, the 
hardness remains at first approximately unchanged or at 
least cannot be measured by reason of the great brittleness 
of the alloys. This high degree of hardness decreases only 
when the content of tin amounts to more than 65 per cent. 

According to an observation first made by d'Arcet, which 
has later on been frequently confirmed and utilized for 
technical purposes, the hardness of copper-tin alloys with 
18 to 22 per cent, tin decreases by heating to a red heat 
and cooling or tempering them in water. Alloys poorer 
in tin, however, are not sensibly affected by this treatment. 

By an addition of iron or manganese the hardness of 
copper as well as of copper-tin alloys is increased. 

Of less importance is the hardening copper experiences 
by the absorption of zinc. The highest degree of hardness 
is shown by an alloy of equal parts of copper and zinc, it 
being about twice that of pure copper. By the addition of 
zinc to copper-tin alloys, the hardness of the latter may be 
even somewhat reduced. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



103 



Gold and silver are made considerably harder by the ad- 
dition of copper ; the content of the latter with which the 
highest degree of hardness is attained has, however, not 
been definitely determined. Karmarsch found that the 
wear of copper-silver alloys by abrasion in use, which prob- 
ably is in the inverse ratio to hardness, takes place accord- 
ing to the following proportional figures : 



With 99.3 per cent, silver, 

" 90.0 " 

" 75-0 

" 65.6 " 

" 52.0 

" 31-2 

" 21.8 



0.7 per cent, copper, abrasion, 2.97 
10. " . " " 



25.0 

34-4 
48.0 
68.8 
78.2 
100. o 



1.60 
1.48 

I-3I 

1.20 
1. 00 

1.045 
1.60 



Hence, an alloy with 31.2 per cent, silver would be the 
hardest, and the hardness decrease with an increasing con- 
tent of silver as well as of copper. 

The hardness of lead is considerably increased by alloying 
with antimony. According to investigations by Calvert 
and Johnson, a lead-antimony alloy with 12 per cent, anti- 
mony is about four times as hard as pure lead, and one with 
23 per cent, antimony, about five times as hard. Although 
by a further increase in the content of antimony the hard- 
ness may be raised even to twelve times that of pure lead, 
such alloys find no technical application on account of their 
high degree of brittleness. 

Lead-tin alloys are harder than pure lead, and when the 
content of tin exceeds 60 per cent, also harder than pure 
tin. An alloy of 70 parts tin and 30 parts lead is about one 
and a half times as hard as pure lead. 

Zinc-tin alloys are, according to Calvert and Johnson, 
harder than tin but none of them attains the degree of 
hardness of zinc. The hardness increases quite uniformly 
with the content of zinc. 

The hardness of iron is increased by a content of carbon 



104 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

(steel). A very high degree of hardness, much exceeding 
that attainable by a content of carbon alone, is imparted to 
iron by the addition of chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, 
vanadium, titanium, and nickel. Such alloys are chiefly 
used as tool steel. Although but relatively small quantities 
— 0.5 to 5 per cent.; seldom more — of these metals are 
added, their high price makes these alloys rather expensive, 
so that their use is restricted to certain purposes. 

6. Flexibility. Flexibility, in a somewhat narrower sense 
also called ductility, is the capacity of certain bodies, espec- 
ially metals, of undergoing while in a non-fused state, 
permanent changes in form by the effect of mechanical 
forces (pull, pressure, etc.) It is closely allied to the above 
mentioned tenacity in so far as it is measured by the perma- 
nent change in form taking place before fracture. For 
flexibility a certain degree of tenacity is always required 
because the permanent change in form becomes possible 
only when the limit of elasticity has been exceeded. The 
more readily fractures take place thereby, the less flexible 
the material. 

In tests for strength, the tenacity, as previously men- 
tioned, is usually measured by the change in form which 
the test-piece suffers previous to fracture (elongation in 
testing tensile strength, compression in testing compressive 
strength). However, in addition to the tenacity of the 
body, flexibility depends on various other conditions. The 
extent of the change in form which a material can stand 
without undergoing fracture has first to be taken into ac- 
count, especially the smallness of the cross section to which 
it can be stretched or drawn out. Gold and silver are con- 
sidered the most flexible of all the metals and chiefly so 
because no other metal can be stretched to such thin cross- 
sections as shown by gold-leaf and silver-leaf. There has 
further to be considered the extent of the mechanical work 
which is required for giving the material a definite form, 
and this depends partially on the limit of elasticity of the 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. IO5 

material. The lower the limit of elasticity lies and the less 
resistance the particles offer to their being shifted after 
passing the limit of elasticity, the less comsumption of work 
for the change of form will be required, and the more flex- 
ible the material appears. However, the greater the 
strength the less danger there is of the material suffering 
fracture after the limit of elasticity has been passed. In 
this sense the difference between limit of elasticity and 
strength is also of importance for the degree of flexibility. 
The temperature at which the material is worked has also 
to be taken into account. Many metals possessing but 
little flexibility at the ordinary temperature, become more 
flexible by heating (iron, copper), while others lose thereby 
on flexibility (brass, German silver). 

Although, from what has been said it is impossible to 
establish a scale of flexibility of the metals and alloys ap- 
propriate to all cases, observation has shown that, gener- 
ally speaking, the purest metals possess the greatest flexi- 
bility, and that by alloying this property is diminished and 
sometimes almost reduced to naught. 

The flexibility of copper in the cold state is materially in- 
jured by a very small quantity of lead — perceptibly so 
already with 0.25 per cent. — and still more so when heated. 
Copper alloys with 6 per cent, tin have, while in a cold 
state, almost entirely lost their flexibility, but when heated 
show a moderate degree of it if their content of tin is not 
much over 15 per cent. On the other hand, while zinc 
increases the strength and hardness of copper to a far less 
extent than tin, its effect upon the flexibility of copper is 
far less, zinc-copper alloys with equal proportions by weight 
of both metals possessing still a certain, though quite low, 
degree of flexibility. 

Gold and silver also become less flexible when alloyed 
with other metals, and are therefore used in a pure state 
when the highest degree of flexibility is demanded, for 
instance in the preparation of gold leaf and silver leaf. The 



106 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

least injurious effect is produced by copper, though both 
of the metals thereby lose perceptibly in tenacity and 
flexibility. 

A small content of zinc appears to have a beneficial effect 
upon the flexibility of many gold-copper and silver-copper 
alloys, especially when they contain much copper. Accord- 
ing to Peligot, gold-copper alloys with 58 to 60 per cent, 
gold, for instance, which by themselves are quite difficult 
to work, become more ductile by replacing 5 to 7 per cent, 
of copper with the same quantity of zinc ; thus 58 to 60 
per cent, gold, 35 to 37 per cent, copper, 5 to 7 per cent, 
zinc. However, if the content of zinc exceeds this limit, 
the ductility decreases. Alloys with more than 1 to 2.5 
per cent, gold also become less ductile by small quantities 
of zinc. 

The effect of bismuth is especially injurious to the flexi- 
bility of many metals — gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, etc. — 
a content of 0.05 per cent, of it being sufficient to render 
each one of these metals useless for purposes requiring a 
high degree of flexibility. Antimony and arsenic may also 
produce an injurious effect even in small quantities. The 
flexibility of zinc is especially impaired by small quantities 
of tin, a content of 0.1 per cent, of this metal producing a 
remarkable effect in this respect. 

An exception to the rule according to which pure metals 
are more flexible than alloyed ones would seem to be found 
in cases where the flexibility as well as the tenacity has 
been impaired by the absorption of oxygen and the separa- 
tion of this content of oxygen has been effected by the ad- 
dition of another body. Thus, according to Charpy's in- 
vestigations, the flexibility of copper containing oxygen 
can be increased by a moderate addition of zinc, and similar 
cases have been frequently observed. However, every ex- 
cess of the addition not required for the purpose dimin- 
ishes the flexibility instead of increasing it ; more in one 
case, less in another. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. IOJ 

7. Casting Capacity. The most important property of 
metals for the manufacture of many articles, is their ability, 
when in a melted state, of being cast in moulds and filling 
completely every portion, even the smallest cross-section, 
of the latter. However this quality again depends on 
several other properties. 

a. Melting temperature. The lower the melting temper- 
ature, the more readily the material to be cast can be con- 
verted into the liquid state and the more convenient its use 
for casting.* 

By alloying the 7nelting temperature of metals is fre- 
quently lowered, i. e., the melting temperatures of the 
alloys are lower than they would be according to calcula- 
tion if computed from the melting temperatures of the 
constituent metals and their proportions by weight. 
Furthermore, by the addition of a metal melting at a 
higher temperature to one melting at a lower one, the 
melting temperature of the latter is frequently lowered in- 
stead of raised. The melting temperature begins agnin to 
rise only when the content of the more refractory metal in 
the alloy exceeds a certain limit at which lies the lowest 
melting temperature attainable — hence when the composi- 
tion of the eutectic alloy is reached. There are numerous 
examples of this. 

Tin melts at 446 F.; lead at 618.8 F. By alloying cer- 
tain quantities of lead with tin, the melting temperature of 
the latter can be still further lowered, its lowest point being 
reached with an alloy of about 31 parts lead and 69 parts 
tin (melting temperature 356 F.). It rises again with an 
increase in the content of lead approaching more and more 
that of pure lead. By connecting the melting points of the 
various lead-tin alloys by a line, the broken shape ABC, 
Fig. 6 is obtained. The straight line lying at 356 F. indi- 

* By melting temperature is understood the temperature at which all the 
constituents which may possibly have been separated by liquation become 
again liquid. 



io8 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



cates the eutectic temperature common to all lead-tin 
alloys at which the eutectic alloy, which for the longest 
time remains liquid during solidification and liquation, con- 
geals. 

Fig. 6. 



6I&8% 
572° 


A 






















462' 
























392' 




















c 


447.8 
















>^B 








356' 


302° 














i 
I 










TIN 10 20 30 40 50 60 \ 70 80 90 100% 
LEAD 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0% 



686% 

It has previously been stated that the melting tempera- 
ture (618.8 F.), is lowered by the absorption of small 
quantities of silver (melting temperature 1760 F.), the 
lowest melting temperature — about 572 F. — being that of 
an alloy with about 4 per cent, silver. With a larger, as 
well as with a smaller, content of silver the melting temper- 
ature is higher. 

But few determinations of the melting temperatures of the 
more refractory metals have been made. Copper melts at 
1983. 2° F.; silver at 1760 F. The eutectic alloy of both 
metals contains, as previously stated, y2 parts silver and 
28 parts copper, and congeals at 1418 F., see Fig. 7. 

The melting temperature (2732 F.) of pure iron is con- 
siderably lowered by the addition of various bodies, es- 
pecially so by carbon which by itself is infusible in our 
ordinary fires. The melting temperature of iron is reduced 
about 212 F. by the absorption of 1 per cent, carbon. 
Iron with 4 per cent, carbon melts already at 1985 F. 

On the other hand there are alloys whose actual melting 
temperatures agree quite well with those obtained by cal- 
culation, or are even somewhat higher. If, in the first case, 
all the alloys of the same group behave in the same man- 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



109 



tier, the line in which the melting temperatures of the 
alloys converge and which connects the melting tempera- 
tures of the pure metals, is a straight one ; to this belong, 
for instance, the alloys of gold (melting temperature 1913 
F.) and of silver (melting temperature 1760 F.) In the 













Fig. 


7- 










ixrr 






















iw 






















1760' 
~I74~Z° 






















«!»• 






















156?' 






















W 










- 
























• 










Wl° 









SILVER 100 
COPPER 



30 
10 



80 
20 



70 

30 

72% 



60 
40 



SO 
50 



1983.2' 



40 
60 



30 
70 



10 
80 



10 
90 



0% 
100% 



second case the line of view of the melting temperatures 
lies above the straight line drawn between the melting 
temperatures of the separate metals. Copper-zinc alloys 
may be mentioned as an example. Zinc melts at 779 F., 
and copper at 1983. 2° F. Maurice Lucas found the follow- 
ing melting temperatures of alloys to which for the sake of 
comparison are added those found by calculation. 



- 




Melting 


Melting 


Copper 


Zinc 


temperature 


temperature 


per cent. 


per cent. 


found 


calculated 






°F. 


°F. 


90.5 


9-5 


1868 


1868 


80.3 


19.7 


1832 


1745.6 


69-5 


30.5 


1733 


1614.2 


60.2 


39-8 


1616 


1502.6 


51.0 


49.0 


1533.6 


1391 


39-7 


60.3 


1493.6 


1256 


31-0 


69.0 


1457 


1171.6 


25-1 


74-9 


1292 


1083.2 


20.4 


79-6 


1097.6 


1023.8 



no 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Fig. 8 shows the line of melting temperatures. There 
being no eutectic temperature from the sharp curve of the 
line at about 30 per cent, copper, the presence of a more in- 
timate chemical combination may be inferred, the composi- 



Fig. 8. 



I922°F 


V 




















1852' 






















1742 9 




\ 

V 


*s\ 
















1652' 








l\ 














156? 






\ 


\*0 














147? 








\ 














1362° 












9, 










1250° 












'% 


1 








1202° 












\ 










1112° 














\;< 


M 






1022° 
















\ * 

\ 






932" 


















\ 




842' 






















752" 























COPPER 100 


SO 


30 


70 


60 


50 


40 


30 


20 


10 





ZINC 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 



tion of which would correspond to the formula Zn 2 Cu 
("with 32.8 per cent, copper and 67.2 per cent, zinc), and 
which during solidification separates from the alloys richer 
in zinc. This alloy, as confirmed by various investigators, 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 



Ill 



is distinguished from the other alloys of this group by its 
great brittleness, color, and chemical behavior. 

Finally there are alloys of which single ones stand out 
prominently from the entire series with a higher melting 
temperature than the adjoining ones. As an example of this 
may serve the alloys of copper and antimony, the melting 
temperatures of which are represented in the line of view 



Fig. 9. 



Z0\Z°F 



19832' 




10 ZO 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 
ANTIMONY 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 



Fig. 9. The alloy with about 51.5 per cent, copper and 
48.5 per cent, antimony has a higher melting temperature 
than the nearest ones richer in copper and richer in anti- 
mony. It is considered a chemical combination of the 
formula SbCu 2 . The series has two eutectic points. A 
eutectic alloy consisting of copper and the compound 
SbCu 2 solidifies at A, and one consisting of antimony and 
the compound SbCu 2 , at B. 

By the addition of a third or fourth metal to an alloy, a 



112 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

further reduction in the melting temperature can be 
effected. Therefore, generally speaking, the greater the 
number of constitue?its of which the alloys consist, the 
farther the actual melting temperatures of the alloys lie 
below those found by calculation. This rule is frequently 
made use of in the manufacture of very fusible alloys, it 
being possible by combining several metals in suitable pro- 
portions by weight, to make alloys which melt in boiling 
water. An alloy of 8 parts lead, 3 parts tin, 8 parts bis- 
muth (Rose's metal) melts at 203 F., and another of 8 
parts lead, 4 parts tin, 15 parts bismuth, 3 parts cadmium 
(Wood's metal), already at 154.4 F. 

b. Fluidity. In addition to the melting temperature the 
degree of fluidity of a melted metal also exerts an influence 
upon its casting capacity. The more thinly-fluid it is, the 
more readily and the more completely it fills the thinnest 
cross-sections of the mould. To be sure its fluidity is part- 
ially dependent on the degree of overheating above the 
melting temperature in melting, and the lower the latter is 
the more readily a thinly-fluid state will be obtained. How- 
ever, independent of this there is no conformity in the be- 
havior of the metals. Just as oil is more thickly-fluid than 
water even when both are to the same extent heated above 
their boiling points, one metal is more thickly-fluid than 
another. Such as gradually soften (copper, wrought iron, 
etc.) as a rule are also more thickly-fluid in a melted state 
than those which melt suddenly (bronze, cast iron). How- 
ever, as a rule, alloyed metals pass less gradually into the 
fluid state than pure metals, and this is without doubt closely 
connected with the fact observed in foundry practice that 
alloys — at least generally speaking — are more thinly-fluid 
than non-alloyed metals. On the other hand some metal- 
loids, especially oxygen and sulphur, render many metals 
by which they have been absorbed thickly-fluid. Copper 
and bronze containing oxygen are more thickly fluid than 
when free from it, and iron containing sulphur is more 
thickly-fluid than when free from it. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. II3 

c. Development of gases. The casting capacity of a 
metal is materially impaired if it possesses the property of 
developing gases while in a fluid state. If this development 
of gas takes place shortly before solidification the gases can 
no longer escape, and the resulting casting is full of gas- 
bubbles. On the other hand, if the metal previous to com- 
plete solidification passes through a dough-like condition, 
it swells up under the pressure of the developing gases, 
scatters when solidifying with a free surface, and becomes 
unfit to sharply fill any mould. Since the volume of gases 
increases materially with the temperature, this process is 
more plainly perceptible with refractory metals than with 
those more readily fusible. 

This feature frequently observed in casting metals may 
be ascribed to various causes. It may sometimes be due 
to gases in solution which shortly before the metal passes 
into the solid state reassume their gaseous form. Various 
metals (iron, copper) dissolve hydrogen and in melting 
find abundant opportunity for absorbing it. Nitrogen may 
also in certain quantities be dissolved by liquid metals, and 
some metals, for instance, silver, dissolve oxygen without 
entering into a more intimate combination with it. 

Whether or not and in what direction the capacity of metals 
to dissolve gases is changed by alloying has thus far not been 
definitely determined. Observations made in casting lead, 
however, lead to the conclusion that, as a rule, alloyed metals 
are less capable of dissolving gases than pure metals. The 
development of dissolved gases may, however, be sometimes 
prevented by adding to the metal a body which enters with 
the dissolved gas into a non-volatile combination which 
does not again disintegrate. Thus, for instance, the oxygen 
dissolved by fluid silver escapes with violence shortly before 
solidification, and frequently produces vigorous scatter- 
ing, and in every case renders the casting of pure silver a 
difficult process. If, however, copper be alloyed with the 
silver, an adequate portion of it combines with the absorbed 



114 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

oxygen to cuprous oxide which, though it remains dis- 
solved in the metal, does not disintegrate; the development 
of gas is thus avoided if not caused by other conditions. 
The greater the proportion of copper to silver the more 
complete the result will be. Zinc, possessing a stronger 
tendency towards combining with oxygen, acts still more 
vigorously than copper. 

The gases, however, originate not less frequently from a 
chemical process in the interior of the liquid metal itself, 
their formation being first caused thereby. If, for instance, 
in addition to dissolved oxides — or under circumstances in 
addition to oxygen which was simply in solution — the metal 
contains other substances which enter into new gaseous 
combinations with the oxygen present, a development of 
gas must by this process be brought about. This develop- 
ment takes place very rapidly if the body combining with 
the oxygen has a strong affinity for the latter and is present 
in great excess. It progresses, however, more gradually, 
and for this very reason is more detrimental to the casting 
capacity, when the affinity for oxygen of the second body is 
only slightly greater than that of the metal whose oxide was 
dissolved, and when it is present in the metal-bath in a 
greatly diluted state. Thus, for instance, commercial cop- 
per contains in addition to certain quantities of cuprous 
oxide, certain quantities of cuprous sulphide; both of these 
bodies act one upon the other, gaseous sulphurous acid 
being thereby formed. The cuprous sulphide is, however, 
present in the liquid metal in a greatly diluted state and 
the action does not take place suddenly but progresses very 
gradually, so that gas is uninterruptedly evolved from the 
melted copper rendering the latter unfit for the manufac- 
ture of castings. By calculating the volume which definite 
quantities of sulphurous acid occupy in the solidifying 
temperature, it will be readily understood that even an ap- 
parently very small content of sulphur is capable of pro- 
ducing perceptible effects. Iron, as well as nickel, always 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. II5 

contains carbon ; if now, in addition to carbon, oxygen is 
present in the metal, the formation of carbonic oxide is 
caused by their reciprocal action which, like sulphurous 
acid in the above-mentioned case, may make the metal unfit 
for casting purposes. 

The development of gas must stop if, in such cases, the 
metal is alloyed with a body which by reason of its stronger 
affinity for oxygen attracts the latter and the oxide of 
which is either separated in an insoluble state in the metal- 
bath, or at least is no longer disintegrated in the manner 
previously described. With copper, for instance, this re- 
sult is attained by the addition of zinc ; aluminium, phos- 
phorus or silicon acting still more vigorously. With nickel 
an addition of zinc also answers the purpose, though mag- 
nesium is still more effective. With iron, manganese is as 
a rule used for the disintegration of the dissolved ferrous 
oxide, but as the resulting manganous oxide is itself again 
affected by the carbon present, though somewhat more 
slowly than the ferrous oxide previously present, an entirely 
complete result is not attained. The object is however 
accomplished with greater certainty by aluminium and in 
fact large quantities of this metal are now used for this 
purpose ; but an excess of the added aluminium remaining 
in the iron makes the latter thickly-fluid and also impairs 
its mechanical behavior, and must therefore be avoided. 

From what has been said it is evident that by suitably 
alloying a metal its capacity for developing gases while in 
a liquid state can be decreased or entirely overcome. 

d. Shrinkage. When a liquid metal congeals it at first 
expands like freezing water and consequently the congealed 
portion floats upon the liquid metal like ice upon water. 
This, however, as cooling progresses, is followed by a con- 
traction which is nearly always greater than the previous 
expansion. Hence the articles produced by casting are, 
when cold, smaller in dimension than the moulds which 
served for the reception of the liquid metal. This process 
is called shrinkage. 



Il6 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

In many respects the shrinkage of metals renders the 
production of serviceable castings more difficult, and the 
greater the degree of shrinkage the more this fact becomes 
apparent. If a casting has in different portions cross-sec- 
tions of varying thickness which do not simultaneously 
congeal and shrink, a strain or even a crack may be formed 
in the casting, but where the metal remains liquid the 
longest, hence usually in the center of the casting, a hollow 
space is formed which may render the article entirely use- 
less. In casting liquating alloys accumulations of more 
readily fusible alloys may easily form in this hollow space. 

A law according to which the degree of shrinkage of 
alloys could be deduced from that of the separate metals 
cannot be laid down. Alloys frequently shrink to a greater 
extent than each of their constituents. Pure copper, for 
instance, shrinks but little* ; pure tin tjt, pure zinc gV. 
On the other hand a copper-tin alloy with 10 per cent, tin 
shrinks yso \ with 20 per cent, tin F V ; and a copper-zinc 
alloy with 30 per cent, zinc eV- The degree of shrinkage 
of tin-lead alloys is quite small and increases with the con- 
tent of lead. (Degree of shrinkage of pure lead 9V). 

8. Conductivity for heat and electricity . Good conduc- 
tors for heat are, as a rule, also good conductors for elec- 
tricity, and vice versa. Amongst the metals silver is con- 
sidered the best conductor for heat and. electricity ; next 
comes pure copper, then gold, etc. 

Experiments, as well as observations in using metals, 
have shown that the purest metals are throughout the best 
conductors and by alloying their conductivity is almost 
always impaired. According to Matthiessen's investiga- 
tions, lead, tin, cadmium and zinc are the only metals whose 
conducting power for electricity is not materially impaired 
when alloyed with one another, but corresponds to that 

*Pure copper is generally not used for casting and an accurate determin- 
ation of its degree of shrinking is connected with difficulties by reason of 
its tendency to develop gases in casting and swelling up thereby. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. \\J 

found by calculation. The conducting power of these 
metals, however, decreases also when they are alloyed with 
other metals. 

It becomes here also evident that, similar to the effect 
of alloying upon other properties, the conductivity of a less 
good conductor may be still further decreased by alloying 
even with a good conductor. 

Taking for instance the conductivity of silver for heat, as 
well as, for electricity as ioo, Wiedmann found the con- 
ductivity of : 

Copper for heat = 73.6; for electricity = 79.3 
Zinc for heat = 28.1 ; for electricity = 27.3 

and that of an alloy of 2.1 parts copper and 1 part zinc, 
for heat = 25.8, for electricity =25.4. 

Very small quantities of a foreign body are frequently 
sufficient to effect a considerable decrease in conductivity. 
According to Matthiessen and Holtzmann, the electrical con- 
ductivity of pure copper is diminished 27 per cent, by the 
absorption of only 0.13 per cent, of lead; 40 per cent, by 
3.2 per cent, of zinc ; 14 per cent, by 2.45 per cent, of 
silver; 80 per cent, by 4.90 per cent, tin; 86 per cent, by 
2.80 per cent, arsenic; and 92 per cent, by 2.50 per cent, 
phosphorous. 

Hampe found that the conductivity of copper may be 
diminished 50 per cent, by 0.35 per cent, arsenic, and about 
25 per cent, by 0.5 per cent, silicon. 

In such cases, previously referred to, where a metal con- 
contains its own oxide in solution, the latter may, like 
another alloyed body impair the conductivity. Matthiessen 
and Holtzmann found that copper which had become 
oxidized by melting in the air conducted electricity only in 
the proportion of 63.37 to 93-00 as compared with copper 
whose content of oxygen had been destroyed by the action 
of hydrogen gas. The conductivity might possibly be in- 
creased by removing the content of oxygen from such a 



Il8 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

metal in the manner previously referred to, i. e. by the 
addition of a body which by reason of its greater affinity 
for oxygen combines with the latter, and the oxide of 
which is insoluble in the metal-bath. However, without 
an excess of such an addition, a complete separation of the 
oxygen is scarcely possible and there is then danger of this 
excess exerting just as an injurious, or still more injurious, 
effect than the oxygen originally present. An addition of 
phosphorus to copper for the purpose of increasing the 
conductivity by destroying the cuprous oxide present 
would, for instance, be scarcely a success, since, as shown 
by the figures given above, a very small quantity of phos- 
phorus in excess greatly diminishes the conductivity. As 
shown by Hampe's investigations, an addition of silicon, 
which has recently been frequently used in the manufacture 
of conducting wires, also impairs to a considerable extent 
the conductivity, and the actual object of such an addition 
is very likely that of increasing the strength of the wire. 
The problem of finding a suitable addition which will not 
impair the conductivity has thus far not been solved. 

9. Color. Regarding the color of alloys, it may also be 
said that the intensity of the effect produced by the addi- 
tion of determined quantities of one metal to another is not 
equally strong throughout, but shows considerable varia- 
tions; the color of an alloy does not always form the com- 
pound color from the colors of the alloyed metals, but 
frequently exhibits independent tones. While, for instance, 
in copper-silver alloys the color of the one metal passes 
quite regularly into that of the other, and hence forms an 
actual compound color, in some copper-tin alloys, and still 
more so, in some copper-zinc alloys with a comparatively 
high content of copper, the red color disappears almost 
completely, being replaced by a yellow shade which cannot 
be produced by simply mixing red and white or red and 
gray. 

The diversity in color of the metals used for technical 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. I IQ. 

purposes is not very great, one metal, copper, being red 
and another, gold, yellow ; the rest are either white or pale 
gray, in the various shades of the pure white of silver and 
tin to the pale gray of lead, platinum, etc. Two or more 
white metals alloyed with one another always give white 
alloys. 

White metals alloyed with the red copper give reddish 
white, reddish yellow, pure yellow, gray or white alloys. 
White metals alloyed with gold give pale yellow, greenish 
or white alloys. 

As previously mentioned, the intensity of coloration pro- 
duced in an alloy by the addition of one or another metal, 
varies considerably. For the metals more frequently used 
for colored alloys, the following scale may be adopted : 

Tin, nickel, aluminium, 

Manganese, 

Iron, 

Copper, 

Zinc, 

Lead, 

Platinum, 

Silver, 

Gold. 

Each metal in this series standing before another exerts 
a stronger influence upon the color than the succeeding 
one, so that the color of the latter frequently disappears by 
the addition of comparatively small quantities of the 
former. 

However, the different shades of color do not appear 
gradually and uniformly with the increase or decrease in 
the content of the one metal, transitions by leaps or bounds 
being frequently observed, and it may even happen that an 
alloy with a larger quantity of a white coloring metal may 
show a darker tone of color than the same alloy with a 
smaller quantity of the same metal. 

The varying intensity of coloration produced by copper, 



120 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



tin and zinc, may be very plainly recognized by a compari- 
son of the scale of color of copper-tin and copper-zinc 
alloys. 







Copper-tin alloys. 




Copper-zinc alloys. 


Copper 


-tin-zinc alloys. 


V 

a 
o 
o 


_fi 





.B 


• 


.5 



_B 




w 


<+« 


Color. 


m-i 


Color. 


•^ 


•^ 


Color. 


o 







O 







O 






+j 














b 


S3 




B 




s 


B 




u 


u 




V 




V 


V 














•M 






B 


B 




B 




B 


B 




O 


O 




O 




O 


O 




u 


u 




O 




U 


u 




9S 


5 


Red yellow, gold-like. 


5 


Red, almost copper color 


— — 


— 


go 


10 


Reddish, gray-yellow. 


10 


Rellowish, red brownish. 


— — 


— 


84 


16 


Reddish yellow, 


16 


Red yellow. 


5 ! 11 


Orange red. 


80 


20 


Reddish gray. 


20 


Reddish yellow. 


4 ! 16 


Orange yellow. 


78 


22 


Yellow gray. 


22 


Reddish yellow. 


' 4 | 18 


Orange yellow. 


75 


25 


Reddish white. 


25 


Pale yellow. 


— . — 





73 


27 


Reddish white. 


27 


Yellow. 


4 


23 


Pale orange. 


70 


30 


White. 


30 


Yellow. 


3 


27 


Pale yellow. 


65 


35 


Bluish white. 


35 


Deep yellow. 


3 


32 


Light yellow. 


62 


38 


Bluish gray. 


38 


Deep yellow. 


— 


— 


— 


59 


41 


Gray. 


41 


Reddish yellow. 


— 


— 


— 


50 


50 


Pale gray. 


50 


Handsome gold yellow. 


— — 


— 


40 


60 


Gray white. 


60 


Bismuth gray, with strong 
















luster. 


— 


— 


— 


30 


70 


Gray white. 


70 


Antimony gray. 


— 


— 


— 


20 


80 


Whitish. 


80 


Zinc gray. 


— 




— 


10 


90 


Whitish. 


90 


Zinc gray. 


— 


— 


— 



From the above table it will be seen that, while the color 
of copper, vivid by itself, is almost completely covered by a 
content of 30 per cent, tin, it is converted by the same 
quantity of zinc first into yellow, and about 60 per cent, 
zinc is required to make it entirely disappear. The fact 
that in copper-zinc alloys with 25 to about 35 per cent, zinc 
the color appears pure yellow fbrass-yellow) and with a 
still higher content (up to 50 per cent.) of zinc golden 
yellow, is also of interest and considerable practical import- 
ance. Still warmer tones of color are obtained, as shown 
in the third column of the table, by replacing in the alloys 
richer in copper (70 to 80 per cent, copper) a portion of 
the zinc by tin. 

The great coloring power of nickel is best shown in 
nickel coins, which contain 75 per cent, copper and 25 per 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 121 

cent, nickel. Notwithstanding the large content of copper, 
the color of the latter has entirely disappeared. 

Gold possesses but slight coloring power. Gold-silver 
alloys with 64 per cent, gold show a greenish-yellow color, 
and with 30 per cent, gold a perfectly white color like fine 
silver. When gold is alloyed with copper, the gold color 
disappears completely with about 75 per cent, copper, the 
alloys exhibiting the red color of rosette copper, while in a 
silver-copper alloy with the same quantity of copper, the 
content of silver can be plainly recognized. 

10. Resistance to chemical influences. A knowl- 
edge of the resistance of alloys to chemical influences is of 
considerable practical importance. Nearly all articles of 
metal and alloys are exposed to the action of gases con- 
tained in the atmosphere (besides the quite indifferent 
nitrogen : oxygen, carbonic acid, aqueous vapor ; in in- 
habited localities nearly always sulphuretted hydrogen, am- 
monia, etc.), and many of them to that of rain and snow, 
while utensils for culinary and technical purposes are in ad- 
dition affected by acid, alkaline, saline, or fatty fluids. For 
the manufacture of such utensils it might be desirable, as 
regards other properties, to alloy the metal to be used for 
the purpose with another, but the question is whether such 
an alloy possesses the same power of resisting chemical in- 
fluences as the pure metal. Thus, for instance, tin contain- 
ing lead is preferable in many respects to pure tin, it being 
harder, stronger and filling the moulds better in casting ; 
but if the alloy is to be used for kitchen utensils, drinking 
vessels or similar purposes, the important question arises 
whether, in view of the poisonous properties of lead it is 
capable of resisting in the same degree as pure tin the 
chemical influences to which it may be exposed in use. 

But few experiments have been made to determine the 
behavior of alloys in this respect. It is generally found that 
the action of the atmosphere is less severe on alloys than on 
their component metals. An instance of this is the ancient 



122 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

bronze statues and coins, some of the latter of which have 
their characters still legible, although they have been ex- 
posed to the effects of air. and moisture for upwards of 
twenty centuries. 

The action of the atmosphere on an alloy heated to a high 
temperature is sometimes quite energetic, as is shown in the 
alloy of 3 parts lead and i of tin, which, when heated to red- 
ness, burns briskly to a red oxide. When two metals, for 
instance copper and tin, which oxidize at different temper- 
atures, are combined, they may be separated by continued 
fusion with exposure to the air. Cupellation of the precious 
metals is a like phenomenon. 

By alloying a metal with another the chemical action of a 
body upon the alloy is frequently reduced to a less degree 
than would correspond to the simple dilution of the metal, 
and two metals, which in a pure state are very sensitive to 
chemical influences, may even show a comparatively great 
power of resisting these influences when alloyed in definite 
proportions with one another. However, two alloys com- 
posed of the same metals, but in different proportions, may, 
in this respect, exhibit considerable variations, and it may 
happen that an alloy with a larger content of a metal pos- 
sessing but slight power of resisting certain influences, may 
be less attacked by the same agents than another alloy with 
a smaller content of the same metal. 

Some investigators have considered this peculiarity of 
some alloys an indication of the presence of actual chemical 
combinations. However, a contrary behavior has also been 
frequently observed. Thus, St. Claire Deville found that a 
lead-platinum alloy, which he kept in a closet, was entirely 
decomposed by the action of the air, the lead being con- 
verted into lead carbonate (white lead), while a piece of 
pure lead lying alongside it remained unchanged. Among 
the silver-copper alloys, that containing 25 per cent, of 
copper tarnishes to a greater degree in air containing sul- 
phuretted hydrogen than pure silver, etc. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. L2T, 

Calvert and Johnson have investigated the resistance of 
different copper-tin and copper-zinc alloys to acids and 
salts, and made the remarkable observation that nitric acid 
of 1. 14 specific gravity dissolves the two metals in an alloy 
of zinc and copper in the exact proportion in which they 
exist in the alloy employed, while an acid of 1.08 specific 
gravity dissolved nearly the whole of the zinc and only a 
small quantity of the copper. Hydrochloric acid of 1.05 
specific gravity, which readily dissolves zinc, was found to 
be completely inactive on all alloys of copper and zinc con- 
taining an excess of copper, and especially on the alloy con- 
taining equivalent proportions of each metal. Zinc was 
found to have an extraordinary preventive influence on the 
action of strong sulphuric acid on copper. The alloy 
Cu 4 Zn 3 (with 56.5 per cent, copper) was but little attacked 
by concentrated hydrochloric or nitric acid, and not at all 
by sulphuric acid. 

Copper-tin alloys were found to resist the action of nitric 
acid more than pure copper, but the preventive influence of 
tm presents the peculiarity that the action of the acid in- 
creases as the proportion of tin increases ; thus the alloy 
CuSn 5 is attacked ten times more than the alloy CuSn. 

Among the copper-tin-zinc alloys the two alloys 

Cu I8 SnZn with 86 per cent, copper, 9 per cent, tin, 5 per cent. zinc. 
Cu 10 SnZn •' 77 " " 14.5 " " 8 " 

were found to be only slightly attacked by strong nitric or 
hydrochloric acid, and, hence, behaved similarly to the above- 
mentioned alloy Cu 4 Zn 3 . The resistance of these alloys 
against the action of nitric acid deserves special attention, 
since the acid readily attacks each of the separate metals. 

Regarding the influence of sea water upon copper-zinc 
and copper-zinc-tin alloys, Calvert and Johnson found that 
from pure copper-zinc alloys zinc is chiefly dissolved, the 
copper being therefore protected by an addition of zinc ; 
and that in the ternary alloys of the mentioned metals, the 



124 THE METALLIC ALLOYS- 

solution of zinc is smaller and that of copper considerably- 
larger than in copper-zinc alloys. Hence by the^ addition 
of tin the zinc is protected and the copper more exposed, 
though with an equivalent proportion of copper a reduction 
in the total effect could not be recognized. On the other 
hand, the action of sea water is weakened by a small addi- 
tion of lead and iron to copper-zinc alloys (see Muntz 
metal) . 

Articles of copper-tin alloys richer in copper, when ex- 
posed for a long time to the action of the air, acquire a 
beautiful pale green or brownish crust called patina, con- 
sisting mostly of the hydroxides and carbonates of the 
component metals. This patina is highly esteemed, partly 
on account of the beautiful appearance it presents, and 
partly as. a characteristic of antique articles, and it is sought 
to promote its formation partly by a suitable choice of the 
alloy and partly by the use of chemical agents. Upon an 
alloy consisting of Cu 89.78, Sn 6.83, Pb 1.85, Co, Ni 0.90, 
Fe 0.28, J. Schuler found a patina of the following com- 
position : 

Sn0 2 49.13 

CuO 22.46 

PbO 3-53 

Fe 2 3 Al 2 3 I.7S 

CO, 6.3s 

H,0 8.48 

Organic substance 0.76 

H 0.65 

Insoluble matter 6. 16 

or, omitting the accidental foreign substances (organic sub- 
stances, sand, etc.) : 

Sn0 3 H 2 60.92 

CuC0 3 .Cu0 2 H 2 34-55 

(PbC0 3 ) 2 Pb0 2 H 2 4.51 

It is remarkable that in this patina the proportion of cop- 
per to the other metals is much smaller than in the bronze. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. I25 

In copper-silver alloys the copper may protect the silver 
from the attack of single agents, but the silver, even when 
present in excess, does not protect the copper. Thus cop- 
per is dissolved by acetic acid from alloys with 80 per cent, 
and upward of silver, a fact which deserves attention in 
using utensils of silver alloyed with copper for household 
purposes. By boiling copper-silver alloys with dilute sul- 
phuric acid, the greater portion of the copper is dissolved, 
while nearly all the silver remains behind. It has previ- 
ously been mentioned that the action of sulphuretted hydro- 
gen is more pronounced upon silver alloyed with copper 
than upon pure silver ; the article becoming covered first 
with a yellowish and then a brownish coat, which finally 
turns blue. 

In gold-silver alloys the gold, if present in excess, may 
weaken or entirely overcome the action of certain acids 
upon silver. While from alloys poor in gold all the silver 
may be extracted by sulphuric acid, an alloy containing 
more than 50 per cent, gold is not affected. 

The action of acids and salt solutions upon lead-tin alloys 
has been more thoroughly investigated on account of the 
poisonous properties of lead, vessels of tin containing lead 
being much used for household and commercial purposes. 
Pleischl, Roussin, Reichelt, and others have shown that 
acetic acid and common salt solution, or a mixture of both, 
dissolve lead from lead-tin alloys even if they contain but 2 
per cent, of lead, the quantity of lead dissolved increasing, 
of course, with the content of lead in the alloy, and depend- 
ing on the time of action. It is a curious fact that some 
alloys richer in lead are said to be more resistant than alloys 
with a smaller content of lead, Pohl giving an alloy of 5 
parts tin and 12 parts lead, and Phlo one of 4 parts tin 
and 9 parts lead, hence almost identical with Pohl's. 

Knapp has investigated lead-tin alloys with the following 
results : Three alloys of different composition were pre- 
pared : 



126 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

A. 30.8 parts tin and 69.2 parts lead (the above-men- 
tioned alloy of Phlo). 

B. 21 parts tin and 79 parts lead (corresponding to the 
formula SnPb 2/ ). 

C. 80 parts tin and 20 parts lead. 

Toward distilled water with the access of air the alloy A 
showed the greatest resistance, while from A and B a com- 
paratively large quantity of oxide of lead (consisting of 
lead, carbonic acid and waterj was separated. 

Cold vinegar dissolved in the course of seven days per 

15.5 square inches surface: 

Lead, Tin, Total, 

gramme. gramme. gramme. 

From alloy A 0.0677 0.0267 0.0944 

From alloy B 0.0773 0.0159 0.0932 

From alloy C 0.0027 0.0337 0.0364 

Hence the alloy richest in tin showed the greatest resist- 
ance toward the action of cold vinegar, while the alloy of 
Phlo proved no more resistant than the alloy with 79 parts 
lead. While for the same quantity of tin the alloy A con- 
tains about 9 times as much lead as C, it yields to vinegar 
26 times as much lead. 

Boiling vinegar dissolved in the course of one hour 

Lead, Tin, Total, 

gramme. gramme. gramme. 

From alloy A 0.0130 0.0032 0.0162 

From alloy B 0.0118 0.0055 0.0173 

From alloy C 0.0058 0.0100 0.0158 

The difference in the resistant power of the alloy richer 
in tin as compared with the two others is, therefore, con- 
siderably diminished by boiling and, by taking into consid- 
eration the total quantity of metal dissolved, Phlo's alloy 
proves nearly as resistant as the alloy richer in tin, the 
amount of lead dissolved being, however, nearly double. 
By taking into consideration the short time of action, it 
will be seen that the effect of the acid is considerably in- 
creased by the higher temperature. 



GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. I27 

Cold common salt solution with about 3.5 per cent, com- 
mon salt, dissolved in the course of seven days from all 
three alloys only lead, no tin being dissolved. The amount 
of lead per 15.5 square inches surface was: 

From the alloy A 0.0023 gramme. 

From the alloy B trace. 

From the alloy C 0.0499 gramme. 

In this case the alloy poorest in lead loses the greatest 
quantity of it. 

At a boiling heat the same common salt solution in the 
course of one hour also dissolved tin, the amount per 15! 
square inches surface being : 

Lead, Tin, Total, 

gramme. gramme. gramme. 

From the alloy A 0.0078 0.0022 0.0100 

From the alloy B o.oc8o 0.0012 0.0092 

From the alloy C 0.0036 0.0020 0.0056 

In this case the alloy richest in tin suffers the smallest 
total loss in metal, but in proportion to its content of lead, 
a comparatively large amount of the latter is dissolved. 

The results of these experiments show the extent to 
which the resisting power of one and the same alloy is de- 
pendent upon the nature of the influences to which it is ex- 
posed and the temperature at which they act. 

R. Weber has made quite a number of experiments with 
lead-tin alloys in regard to their behavior towards vinegar. 
His investigations show that generally speaking the alloys 
are the more strongly attacked the greater their content of 
lead, no exception from this rule for some alloys richer in 
lead, as supposed by Pohl and Phlo, having been found. 
Further, a content of antimony does not prevent the alloy 
from being attacked, and that when vinegar is mixed with 
% its volume of tartaric acid, the quantity of metal dis- 
solved is increased fourfold. 

In Germany, by law, vessels intended for measuring 
fluids must not contain more than 1 part lead to 5 parts tin. 



CHAPTER V. 
PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 

Alloys are generally prepared by directly melting to- 
gether the metals which are to take part in the mixture. 
At the first glance this would seem a very simple affair, 
requiring scarcely any explanation, but in fact great skill 
and judgment are necessary for the successful accomplish- 
ment of the object. Some alloys are in fact very difficult to 
prepare, and require special precautionary measures. 

For melting purposes various kinds of utensils are em- 
ployed. An iron kettle may be used for the manufacture 
of alloys with low melting temperatures, especially those of 
lead and tin, or alloys of these metals with antimony. For 
heating the kettle ordinary fuel or, when working on a 
small scale, illuminating gas may be used. 

For alloys with higher melting temperatures crucibles 
are used in place of a kettle. Crucibles are more expensive 
and require frequent renewal, but they are indispensable 
for melting alloys with higher melting temperatures, for 
instance, the alloys of copper, nickel, silver, gold. In most 
cases crucibles are made of fire-clay mixed with graphite. 
The latter improves the refractory quality, prevents the 
crucible from cracking in burning it, and impedes the pas- 
sage of oxidizing fire-gases through the red-hot walls of the 
crucible. The crucibles are generally heated in a furnace, 
coke being used as fuel. They are, as a rule, taken from 
the furnace by means of tongs and emptied by tilting. In 
doing this there is, however, danger of the crucible break- 
ing, this danger increasing with the weight of the crucible, 
and therefore the capacity of the latter is generally limited 
to about ioo lbs. Hence if larger quantities are to be 

(128) 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 1 29 

melted, several crucibles have to be used and their contents 
combined after melting. This method has, however, several 
drawbacks. To overcome these, furnaces have been in- 
troduced in which the crucible is stationary and for the 
purpose of emptying it, the entire furnace is tilted over by 
means of a mechanical appliance. The crucible of such a 
furnace has a capacity of up to iooo lbs. 

When working on a large scale, the crucibles are some- 
times placed upon the flat hearth of a furnace where they 
are heated by the passing flame of the fuel. The crucibles 
are emptied, as previously mentioned by means of tongs. 

If, however, considerable quantities are at one time to be 
melted, and damage to the quality of the alloys from com- 
ing in contact with the gases of combustion need not 
be feared, a reverberatory furnace is used. The metal is 
placed upon the trough-shaped hearth of the furnace and 
directly melted by the passing flame. The melted metal is 
drawn off through the tap-hole. This process is generally 
employed in bronze foundries when bells and other large 
articles are to be cast. Wood is preferably used as fuel, 
since the content of sulphur in coal might pass from the 
gases into the metal and impair its quality. In many works 
gas is now used for heating the furnace. Special pre- 
cautions must be taken to keep up a deoxidizing flame 
within the furnace. A small portion of the heat, which 
otherwise could be used for melting the metals, is some- 
times lost thereby ; but the great advantage is gained that 
as long as the gases of combustion passing over the metals 
absorb oxygen, the melting metals will actually remain in a 
metallic state. This is especially of great importance with 
metals which readily oxidize when exposed in a fused state 
to the action of the air. It may here be remarked that the 
oxides formed by careless work from the metals seldom 
take part in the formation of the alloy, so that even if the 
quantities of metals have been accurately weighed, the 
resulting alloy will not show the desired composition, since 
9 



I3O THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the portion of the metals converted into oxide does not 
enter into the alloy. 

For preparing alloys on a smaller scale in a crucible, 
special precautionary measures must be taken against 
oxidation of the metals. For this purpose the surface of 
the metals is covered with bodies which prevent the access 
of air, without, however, exerting any influence whatever, 
or at least only to a very small extent, upon the metals. 
In many cases anhydrous borax is used ; but independently 
of the fact that borax is rather expensive and unnecessarily 
increases the cost of the alloys, its employment is accom- 
panied by many evils. It is well known that in borax a 
portion of the boric acid is not perfectly saturated, and that 
in melting borax with base metals a certain portion of the 
acid is always absorbed, which with the sodium borate 
forms double salts of a glassy nature. Hence by fusing 
metals under borax a certain portion of them will be lost 
by forming a combination with the borax. 

Glass consists of a mixture of silicates, and forms, when 
thrown upon fusing metal, a coating which completely ex- 
cludes the access of air to the surface of the metal. Though 
it has also the property of absorbing certain metals when 
brought in contact with them in a liquid state, the influ- 
ence it exerts upon alloys is, generally speaking, much less 
than that of an equal quantity of borax. If the metals to 
be fused together are such that a combination with carbon 
need not be feared, the fusing mass can also be protected 
from the influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere by 
covering it with a layer of pulverized charcoal. Many man- 
ufacturers are in the habit of throwing a certain quantity of 
fat upon the heated metal before fusion. The fat on being 
suddenly strongly heated decomposes and evolves a con- 
siderable quantity of gas, which exerts a protecting influ- 
ence upon the surface of the metals. After the evolution 
of gas has ceased, there remains a very finely divided 
carbon which protects the metals from oxidation. 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. I3I 

For the preparation of alloys from noble or costly metals 
it is recommended to effect the fusion in crucibles of 
graphite or of graphite mixed with clay, as the metal read- 
ily and completely separates from such crucibles. In regard 
to graphite crucibles we would draw attention to a circum- 
stance, which, though unimportant in itself, may become 
very disagreeable in preparing alloys from costly metals. 
It sometimes happens that a graphite crucible a short time 
after being placed in the furnace bursts with a loud report, 
and the metals contained in it fall into the fire, from which 
they have to be rescued with considerable trouble. This 
phenomenon in most cases is due to faulty work in the 
making of the crucible. If for instance the mass of the 
crucible contains a small bubble filled with air or moisture, 
these bodies will expand strongly on heating, and this ex- 
pansion may go so far as to cause the bursting of the cruc- 
ible. But, as this defect cannot be recognized from the ap- 
pearance of the crucible, it is recommended to test every 
crucible before using it for melting metals. This is done 
by putting them in a place where they gradually become 
strongly heated. Bad crucibles crack in most cases, and 
the others are sufficiently dried out so that they can be 
used for melting the metals without fear of cracking. 

In preparing alloys the metal most difficult to fuse should 
be first melted, and the more fusible ones only introduced 
after the complete fusion of the first. The varying densities of 
the metals to be combined frequently render the formation 
of a homogeneous mass very difficult. Moreover, in many 
alloys certain chemical combinations are readily formed, 
while the rest of the metals form alloys, the preparation of 
which was not intended. 

If two metals with greatly varying densities are alloyed 
and the mass is allowed to be quiescent, it will be observed 
that, after cooling and taking from the crucible, it shows 
clearly perceptible layers varying in color and appearance. 
By chemically examining these layers it will be found that 



132 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

each of them contains different quantities of the metals used 
in alloying. To obtain in such case as homogeneous an 
alloy as possible, the metals, while in a state of fusion, must 
not be allowed to remain quiescent, but an intimate mix- 
ture be effected by vigorous stirring, sticks of dry soft 
wood being in many cases used for this purpose. By stir- 
ring the fused mass with one of these sticks, the wood is 
more or less carbonized according to the temperature of 
the mass. In consequence of the destructive distillation of 
the wood taking place thereby, there is evolved an abund- 
ance of gases which, by ascending in the fused mass, con- 
tribute to its intimate mixture, The stirring should be 
continued for some time and the alloy then cooled as 
rapidly as possible. 

The production of proportionate solutions of the metals 
one in another in melting can sometimes be promoted by 
certain manipulations. To these belong, for instance, the 
process of allowing the alloy to cool and then remelting it. 
In casting articles scraps and waste generally result, which 
in order to be utilized have to be remelted. So-called old 
metal consisting of articles which have become useless by 
having been broken or otherwise damaged are also fre- 
quently remelted. The above-mentioned effect of remelt- 
ing accounts for the fact that a moderate addition of such 
scraps, provided they consist of the same alloy, may be 
beneficial as regards the properties of the alloy to be 
melted. However, the metals chiefly used for alloying are 
quite readily oxidizable in the melting temperature, and 
many of them possess the property of dissolving their own 
oxides whereby their usefulness may be impaired. Now the 
more frequently the alloy is remelted, the more ample the 
opportunity for the absorption of oxides will be. From 
this it will be seen that the melting of old metal without 
the addition of fresh metal is only possible without produc- 
ing an injurious effect when no oxides are absorbed during 
melting. No rule can be laid down regarding the propor- 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 133 

tion of old to new metal most suitable for the production 
of serviceable alloys, since the old metal has, as a rule, been 
more or less often remelted. 

When larger quantities of one metal are to be alloyed 
with smaller quantities of another, it is advisable to first 
melt together approximately equal quantities by weight of 
the two metals, and by a second melting combine the re- 
sulting alloy with the remainder of the metal. This 
method is frequently employed when there is considerable 
difference between the melting temperatures of the metals. 
If, for instance, a small amount of copper is to be alloyed 
with a large quantity of tin, an alloy, the melting tempera- 
ture of which will be considerably lower than that of cop- 
per, is first made by melting the copper together with 
about the same quantity by weight of tin, and then adding 
to this the remaining tin. The same method is adopted 
when three or more metals of different melting points are 
to be alloyed in varying proportions by weight. To make, 
for instance, an alloy from 3 parts lead (melting point 
6 18. 8° F.), 1 part tin (melting point 446 F.), and 1 part 
antimony, (melting point 1166 F.), the most suitable pro- 
cess is to first alloy one-third, i. e. 1 part, of the lead with 
the entire quantity of antimony by dissolving the latter in 
the lead after it has been melted, then adding the rest of 
the lead and finally combining with this lead-antimony 
alloy the tin which is most readily liquified, and being also 
the most expensive of the three metals, its oxidation should 
as much as possible be prevented. The same object might 
also be accomplished by alloying one part of the lead, as 
previously described, with the antimony, another part of 
the lead, or under circumstances the entire remainder of it, 
with the tin, and then combining the lead-antimony alloy 
with the lead-tin alloy. 

When a larger amount of copper (melting point 1983. 2 
F.) is to be alloyed with smaller quantities of nickel (melt- 
ing point 2732° F.) and zinc (melting point 779 F.), one 



134 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

part of the copper may first be melted together with the 
nickel and another part with the zinc, finally combining the 
nickel-copper alloy with the zinc-copper alloy. The reason 
for this apparently more troublesome process may be found 
in the fact that, on the one hand, uniform combination is 
facilitated by the formation of intermediate alloys with melt- 
ing points less far apart than those of the constituent 
metals, and, furthermore, that readily oxidizable or volatile 
metals, for instance, zinc, are less subject to oxidization or 
volatilization when alloyed than when in a pure state. 

While formerly only a few alloys were known, a large 
number are at present used in the industries, and we find 
very rare metals sometimes employed for the preparation of 
alloys to impart special properties. One of the principal 
causes of this advance in the industry is the progress of 
mechanics. We need only to consider the bearings of shafts 
and axles in order to understand the varying demands 
made by the engineer as regards the properties of alloys. 
How different must be the nature of an alloy which serves 
for the construction of the bearing of an axle revolving 
with a light load perhaps once in a second, from that which 
has to bear a heavily-loaded shaft making many hundred 
revolutions per minute ! For many purposes alloys pos- 
sessing great ductility are required, for others the chief 
requisite is hardness, others again must have a high degree 
of elasticity, and still others as low a melting point as pos- 
sible. It will be readily understood that these different de- 
mands can only be satisfied by adding to the alloys suitable 
quantities of metals of varying properties. 

Though most heavy metals are at the present time used 
in the manufacture of alloys, copper, tin, zinc, lead, silver 
and gold are more frequently employed than others, the 
alloys of these metals being at the same time those which 
have been longest known and used. In modern times the 
alloys prepared with the assistance of nickel have also be- 
come of great importance, as well as those of which alumi- 
nium and vanadium form a constituent. 



PREPARATION OF ALLOYS IN GENERAL. 1 35 

Everyone who pays close attention to the subject of 
alloys knows that the amount of information which has 
been gained upon this important branch of metallurgy is 
comparatively meagre, and that much is still to be expected 
from the progress of chemistry. The metallurgist, if left to 
himself, cannot be expected to arrive at certain results, 
because, probably, he may be wanting in chemical knowl- 
edge or in the methodical course of investigation which 
must be possessed by those who are qualified to success- 
fully prosecute such researches. These qualifications are 
so much the more indispensable when it is remembered 
that every new alloy, by the fact of its properties being dif- 
ferent' from those of its constituents, may be regarded as a 
new metal. Before proceeding with the description of the 
most important alloys, it may be convenient to say a few 
words about the best methods of making experiments in 
the preparation of new alloys. 

It is known that the elements always combine with one 
another in certain quantities by weight, which are termed 
atomic weights. (A table of the atomic weights of the 
principal metals is found upon page 22.) By mixing the 
metals according to equivalent quantities, alloys of deter- 
mined characteristic properties are, as a rule, obtained. If 
these properties do not answer the demands made of the 
alloy, the object is frequently attained by taking two, three, 
or. more equivalents of one metal. An exception to this 
rule is only made in certain cases, and especially where, 
according to experience, a very small quantity of a metal 
suffices considerably to change the properties of the alloy. 
It is then most suitable to prepare the mixtures serving for 
the experiment according to thousandths, and with every 
new experiment change the proportion between the separ- 
ate metals a certain number of thousandths. 

For combining metals with non-metallic elements, for in- 
stance with sulphur or with phosphorus, it is, however, not 
sufficient to choose the proportions according to thou- 



I36 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

sandths, it being necessary to add these bodies according" 
to ten thousandths. For these elements the form in which 
they are used is also of importance, which, however, will be 
referred to in speaking of them later on. It may here be 
remarked that the application of the term alloy to such 
metals which, so to say, are contaminated by phosphorus 
or sulphur, is entirely incorrect. It is used, however, for 
want of a better one, since it at least indicates that we are 
not dealing with a pure metal. 



CHAPTER VI. 
COPPER ALLOYS. 

Pure copper by reason of its great ductility and tenacity 
forms a very important and valuable material for various 
applications in the arts, but its employment for many pur- 
poses is connected with difficulties. It is, as previously 
mentioned, but seldom used in the foundry on account of 
its tendency to develop gases in casting whereby it swells 
up, and sound, strong castings can only be obtained with 
great difficulty, even if the work is done with the greatest 
care. However certain alloys of copper possess, in addition 
to the valuable properties of the latter, others which render 
them especially suitable for certain industrial purposes, and 
moreover, it is possible to impart to such alloys the most 
desirable properties, as they can be made soft or very hard ; 
brittle or elastic, malleable or non-malleable, etc. 

The production of copper alloys is attended with certain 
difficulties, since this metal has a very high melting point 
and the presence of very small qnantities of foreign bodies 
exerts a great influence upon its own properties as well as 
upon those of its alloys. 

Thus a content of —oVo to 10 3 oo of lead somewhat increases 
the ductility of copper to be rolled ; but the presence of one 
full thousandth of lead renders the metal unfit for the 
preparation of brass which is to be rolled into sheets or 
drawn out into wire. By adding to copper up to —oVo of 
lead, it acquires the property of being red-short or hot- 
short, and by increasing the content of lead to one per 
cent, it becomes entirely useless, it being both red-short 
and cold-short. A content of lead always exerts an injuri- 
ous influence upon the properties of copper, this influence 

(137) 



I38 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

being more strongly observed at a higher temperature than 
at an ordinary one. 

A content of iron exceeding yoVo has also an injurious 
effect upon the properties of copper, rendering it hard and 
brittle. Small quantities of nickel affect copper injuriously 
in making it less malleable, the evil being still further in- 
creased if besides this metal a small quantity of antimony 
be present. Antimony and arsenic by themselves mixed 
with copper considerably decrease its highly-valued prop- 
erty of ductility. Copper containing only -0V0 of antimony 
can no longer be worked for sheet brass. Bismuth acts in 
a manner similar to antimony. Zinc mixed with copper 
up to tooo makes it red-short. Certain alloys of copper and 
zinc can, however, be well worked, the most important of 
such alloys being brass. A content of tin and silver seems 
not to have an injurious effect upon the properties of cop- 
per, and these two metals, if added in certain proportions, 
yield alloys which are distinguished by special valuable 
properties. 

An admixture of cuprous oxide makes copper both red- 
short and cold-short, especially if present in larger quanti- 
ties, and further imparts to it the disagreeable property of 
considerably contracting in casting. Moreover, the cast- 
ings from such copper show an unequal density, so that 
plates of it cannot be used for copper-plate printing. It 
may here be remarked that most brands of copper found in 
commerce contain certain quantities of cuprous oxide, it 
being claimed that an admixture of one-half to two per 
cent, of it is even beneficial, as it counteracts the injurious 
influence of foreign metals upon the copper. 

Beside the above-mentioned metals, many brands of cop- 
per found in commerce frequently contain bodies belonging 
to the non-metals, such as sulphur, silicon, and phos- 
phorus. The influence of these bodies is, as a rule, very 
injurious. 

A content of sulphur makes the copper red-short and 



COPPER ALLOYS. 139 

castings of it blown. By a content of silicon the copper 
loses its pure red color and acquires one shading into 
white, its ductility being at the same time considerably 
affected. Copper containing nearly two per cent, of silicon 
can only be rolled in the cold, as it cracks in the heat. 
With a still greater content of silicon the copper becomes 
a yellowish-white metal of extraordinary brittleness, so that 
it can no longer be worked to advantage. 

A content of phosphorus exerts a considerable influence 
upon the properties of copper, generally increasing its 
hardness and at the. same time making it more fusible. 
With an admixture of Woo of phosphorus the copper can 
only -be rolled in the cold, while with a still greater content 
it becomes brittle in the cold. Some alloys of copper 
with phosphorus, known as phosphor-bronze, are, however, 
used for certain industrial purposes on account of their 
special properties, they being distinguished by particular 
strength, ductility, and beautiful color. These combina- 
tions will be referred to later on. 

According to the more recent researches by Hampe, 
copper shows the following behavior towards admixtures : — 

With a content of between T oVo and T ffo of cuprous 
•oxide, the properties of the copper are not sensibly affected, 
it becoming red-short only in the presence of drW; and a 
content of this compound always acts in such a manner as 
to increase the brittleness of the metal more in the cold 
than in the heat. One-thousandth of arsenic exerts no in- 
fluence upon the copper, but tIthf of it render it cold-short 
and hard. It only becomes red-short with tttto of arsenic, 
but is not cold-short, which is contrary to the opinions 
formerly held in regard to the influence of arsenic upon 
copper. Antimony acts similarly to arsenic, except that a 
smaller quantity of it will make the copper red-short. 

A content of one and a half thousandths of lead exerts 
no influence upon the properties of copper ; a slight brittle- 
ness in the heat shows itself, however, with a content of nnnr 



I40 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which becomes greater with one of ttrrt, and is clearly per- 
ceptible in the cold. 

According to these more recent researches a content of 
bismuth exerts an especially injurious influence upon the 
properties of copper, an indefinitely small quantity sufficing 
to decrease the ductility in the heat, while with a content 
of nnnr tne copper becomes exceedingly red-short and 
sensibly cold-short. 

A considerable portion of the copper occurring in com- 
merce is extracted from minerals containing a number of 
other metals, this holding especially good in regard to those 
brands obtained from gray copper ore or fahl ore.* Ex- 
perts can tell from the external properties of the metal, es- 
pecially by the color, fracture, and ductility, whether it is 
suitable for certain purposes or not. But it is, of course, 
impossible to recognize in this manner the quantities of 
foreign bodies. In buying a large lot of copper for alloys 
it is therefore recommended to subject it to an accurate 
chemical analysis, in order to be sure that it is free from 
lead and bismuth, which are especially injurious. 

As previously mentioned, the number of copper alloys is 
very large, the most important being those with tin, zinc, 
nickel, gold, silver, platinum, and mercury, and further, 
with aluminium ; the alloys of copper with lead, antimony, 
and iron are less frequently used. 

After giving a brief introductory sketch of the alloys of 
copper with the precious metals, which have been used 
from very remote times, we shall first speak of the alloys of 
copper with the base metals, they being of special interest 
for industrial purposes, and, besides, presenting more tech- 
nical difficulties in their preparation. 

Copper-gold alloys. — Gold, as previously mentioned hav- 
ing but a slight degree of hardness, must be alloyed with 
other metals in order to prevent its wearing too rapidly, 

* It contains copper, antimony, arsenic, and sulphur. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 141 

copper and silver, either by themselves or together, being 
generally used for the purpose. Beside the fact that the 
gold alloys show a greater degree of hardness than the 
pure metal, the color of the latter is also changed by alloy- 
ing with silver or copper, there being gold with a color 
shading into white (alloyed with silver) and other varieties 
shading into red (alloyed with copper). There is also a 
green gold, which is an alloy of gold, silver, and copper. 

According to the purpose for which gold alloys are to be 
used, they are prepared either with copper or silver alone, 
or with the assistance of both metals. The gold coins of 
Europe consist always of an alloy of gold with copper, a 
content of silver, which must, however, be very small, being 
due to the use of argentiferous gold. The preparation of 
alloys of gold and of silver has become very extensive on 
account of their being used for coinage and articles of 
jewelry, and will be referred to later on. 

Copper-silver alloys, — The alloys of copper with silver 
are extensively used for coinage and silverware. As may 
be seen from the properties of both metals, these alloys 
possess a considerable degree of ductility, and if the pro- 
portions in which the metals are mixed are so chosen that 
the copper slightly predominates, their properties are 
almost exactly a mean between those of the two metals. 
They will be fully discussed later on, and we only mention 
here that most alloys of silver and copper contain more of 
the former than of the latter metal. 

The alloys of the other noble metals, especially those of 
the platinum group, find but a limited application in the in- 
dustries ; they will be referred to latter on. 

Alloys of copper with the base metals. — Although the 
number of alloys of copper with the base metals is very 
large, those known under the general terms of brass and 
bronze are so extensively used in the various industries as 
to make most of the others appear unimportant in compar- 
ison. Bronze has been known from very remote times, and 



142 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

was used by the ancients in casting statues and other orna- 
ments. The bronze used by the prehistoric nations con- 
tained no lead, and came nearest to what is at the present 
time designated by the term bronze, i. e., an alloy of cop- 
per and tin. The bronze used by the Romans and post- 
Romans was rarely an alloy of pure copper and tin, but 
contained usually more or less lead. 

Brass, the other important alloy of copper mentioned 
above, was manufactured by cementing sheets of copper 
with calamine or carbonate of zinc long before zinc in a 
metallic form was known. 

COPPER-ZINC ALLOYS. 

The compounds under this heading comprise brass, 
tombac, and allied alloys which contain copper and zinc as 
chief constituents. The first account of the alloy of copper 
and zinc transmitted to the present times was written by 
Aristotle, who states that a people who inhabited a country 
adjoining the Euxine Sea prepared their copper of a beau- 
tiful white color by mixing and cementing it with an earth 
found there, and not with tin, as was apparently the custom. 
Strabo also alludes to the preparation of the alloy of copper 
and zinc by the Phrygians from the. calcination of certain 
earths found in the neighborhood of Andera, and other au- 
thors, in the time of Augustus, speak distinctly of cadmia 
and its property of converting copper into au? r ichalcum, 
under which title the zinc alloy was subsequently known. 
Several writers of the Christian era who have referred to 
this compound are not more explicit than their predeces- 
sors ; still it is evident, from various recent analyses of old 
alloys, that zinc was contained in many of those prepared 
about the commencement of the present era. 

The influence of zinc upon copper has several times been 
previously referred to. It renders copper fit for casting, 
and the copper-zinc alloys do not show the strong tendency 
towards liquation peculiar to copper-tin alloys. According 



COPPER ALLOYS. I 43 

to Charpy,* copper-zinc alloys with a content of up to 33 
per cent, consist of an aggregation of dendritic (fir-tree- 
like) crystallites which form solidified solutions of the cop- 
per and zinc (mixed crystals of the two constituents) with- 
out liquation or disintegration, as is the case with eutectic 
alloys, having previously taken place. In alloys with 33 to 
45 per cent, zinc, crystallites are noticed which are sur- 
rounded by a mass, probably of the combination CuZn 2 , 
consisting of fine crystals. In alloys richer in zinc two 
different constituents can also be recognized. 

The strength and hardness of copper are, to be sure, in- 
creased to a less extent by zinc than by tin, but its flexi- 
bility is far less decreased by it, so that, while copper-tin 
alloys with a content of about 6 per cent, tin can no longer 
be worked at the ordinary temperature, copper-zinc alloys 
with even 50 per cent, zinc can with care be worked at the 
ordinary temperature, provided they do not contain other 
bodies which impair their flexibility. If, however, the con- 
tent of zinc exceeds 50 per cent, the alloy becomes rapidly 
brittle. 

On the other hand, many copper-zinc alloys cannot be 
worked so well at a red heat as some copper-tin alloys ; 
only a few with a fixed content of zinc stand working in a 
heated state, and are malleable. Hence copper-zinc 
alloys are, as a rule, worked cold by hammering, pressing, 
rolling, drawing, etc., and this property of standing such 
manipulations without previous heating, is without doubt 
an advantage. However, like most metals worked cold, 
they become by these manipulations hard and brittle, and 
occasional annealing is, as a rule, required to restore to 
them their lost flexibility. 

BRASS, ITS PROPERTIES, MANUFACTURE, AND USES. 

The manufacture of brass was introduced, in 1550, in 

*G. Charpy. "Etudes microscopiques des alliages metalliques." Bul- 
letin de la Societe d' Encouragement. 1907. 



144 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Germany by Erasmus Ebener, an artist of Niirnberg, who 
prepared it by fusing copper with so-called tutia fornacem 
or furnace cadmia. In England the first brass by the direct 
admixture of copper and spelter, with or without the inclu- 
sion of calamine, was made in 1781, by James Emerson, 
who took out a patent for the process. 

Brass, generally speaking, should contain only copper 
and zinc, but most varieties found in commerce contain 
small quantities of iron, tin, arsenic, and lead. In many 
cases these admixtures are due to contaminations mixed 
with the ores from which the copper or zinc is extracted, 
while in others they have been intentionally added in order 
to change the ductility, fusibility, etc., of the alloy. Copper 
and zinc can be mixed together within very wide limits, 
the resulting alloys being always serviceable. Generally 
speaking, it may be said that with an increase in the con- 
tent of copper the color inclines more towards a golden, 
the malleability and softness of the alloy being increased at 
the same time. With an increase in the content of zinc the 
color becomes lighter and lighter, and finally shades into a 
grayish-white, while the alloys become more fusible, brittle, 
and at the same time harder. Just as different as the 
properties of the respective alloys is also the cost of pro- 
duction, the price of brass increasing with the greater con- 
tent of copper. Very extensive researches have been made 
in regard to the behavior of alloys of copper and zinc, 
which may be briefly expressed as follows: — An alloy con- 
taining from 1 to 7 per cent, of zinc still shows the color 
of copper, or at the utmost only a slight yellow tinge. 
With 7.4 to 13.8 per cent of zinc, the color of the alloy 
undergoes a considerable change, it being a pleasant red- 
yellow. With from 13.8 to 16.6 per cent, the color may be 
designated a pure yellow, while that of alloys containing up 
to 30 per cent, of zinc is also yellow, but not pure. It is a 
singular fact that with a content of over 30 per cent, of 
zinc a red color appears again, which is most pronounced 



COPPER ALLOYS. 145 

with equal parts by weight of the metals, an alloy of 50 
parts of copper and 50 of zinc having almost a golden 
color, but exhibiting also a high degree of brittleness. 
With a still higher content of zinc the gold color rapidly 
decreases, becoming reddish-white with 53 per cent., yel- 
lowish-white with 56 per cent., and bluish-white with 64 
per cent.; with a still higher content of zinc the alloy ac- 
quires a lead color. 

The physical properties of alloys of copper and zinc differ 
very much according to the quantities of copper and zinc 
contained in them. Alloys containing up to 35 per cent, 
of zinc can be converted into wire or sheet, in the cold 
only, those with from 15 to 20 per cent, being the most 
ductile. 

Alloys with from 36 to 40 per cent, of zinc can be worked 
in the cold as well as in the heat. With a still higher con- 
tent the ductility decreases rapidly, and an alloy with, for 
instance, from 60 to 70 per cent, of zinc is so brittle that 
it cannot be worked. If, however, the content of zinc is 
increased up to a maximum (70 to 90 per cent.), the duc- 
tility increases again and the alloy can be worked quite 
well in the heat ; but not at red heat. 

Brass shows always a crystalline structure, which is the 
more pronounced the more brittle the alloy is, and hence 
that prepared from equal parts of copper and zinc shows 
the most distinct crystalline structure. 

In connection with this some researches in regard to 
metals becoming crystalline, made by S. Kalischer, may be 
of interest. By heating rolled zinc to from 302 to 338 F., 
it suffers a series of permanent changes without its ex- 
ternal appearance being directly altered. It loses its clear 
sound and becomes almost without sound, like lead. It 
can be more readily bent, but breaks more easily, and in 
bending emits a noise similar to the " cry of tin." All 
these alterations are due to a change in the molecular 
structure of the zinc, it becoming crystalline. This crys- 
10 



I46 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tallization can be readily rendered perceptible by dipping a 
heated strip of zinc into a solution of sulphate of copper, 
the copper, which is immediately precipitated, showing 
clearly perceptible crystallization. The fracture of the 
rolled and heated zinc is also crystalline. To avoid this 
change it is recommended not to exceed a temperature of 
266 F. in manufacturing sheet-zinc. Sheets of cadmium 
and of tin become crystalline at about 392 ° F. Sheet-iron 
and sheet-copper are also crystalline, but sheet-steel is not. 
Kalischer examined four varieties of sheet-brass constituted 
as follows: 

Parts. 



Copper 
Zinc . . 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


66 


62.5 


60 


56.8 


34 


37-5 


40 


43-2 



Samples Nos. I. and II. were undoubtedly crystalline, and 
sample No. IIT. showed traces of crystallization, while No. 
IV. did not become crystalline even by heating. 

Sheets of tombac composed of — 



Parts. 



I. II. III. 

Copper 73.74 80.38 90.09 

Zinc 25.96 1929 9.91 

Tin 0.30 0.33 — 

were all crystalline. No crystallization could be observed 
in bronze-sheets composed of — 

Parts. 



I. II. 

Copper 90 88.23 

Zinc 5 8.82 

Tin 5 2.95 

Rolled lead is crystalline, but rolled fine silver and gold 
are not. By reason of these observations and experiments. 



COPPER ALLOYS. I47 

Kalischer is of the opinion that the crystalline state is 
natural to most metals, but they can be deprived of it by 
mechanical influences, and many can be reconverted into it 
under the influence of heat. 

If a very ductile brass is to be prepared, great care must 
be had to use metals of the utmost purity, since exceed- 
ingly small admixtures of foreign metals suffice to injure 
considerably the ductility, rendering the fabrication of very 
thin sheets or fine wire impossible. 

The strength of brass, as shown by many experiments, 
is also intimately connected with its composition, that con- 
taining about 28.5 per cent, of zinc showing the greatest 
absolute strength. The strength depends, however, to a 
considerable extent, also on the mechanical treatment the 
metal has received. A piece of brass of o.ooi square inch 
breaks with the following loads : — 

Cast brass breaks with 2777.5 pounds. 

Ordinary wire 7293 ' ' 

Hard-drawn thin wire 9080.5 

Annealed thin wire 7100 to 8628 " 

The molecular structure of brass can be much changed 
by treatment, it becoming more brittle by continuous mani- 
pulation, so that in drawing wire it must be frequently an- 
nealed to prevent it from becoming brittle. If brass is 
strongly heated and rapidly cooled, its hardness decreases, 
its behavior in this respect being opposite to that of steel. 
Brass which, for instance, as a constituent of machines, is 
subjected to repeated shocks, becomes brittle and fragile. 

A very important factor in brass is its melting point, 
there being wide deviations in this respect, which are 
readily explained by the great difference in the melting 
points of the two constituent metals. Generally speaking, 
the fusing point of brass lies at about 1832 F. If brass 
in a fused state is kept for some time in contact with air, 
its composition undergoes an essential change by the com- 



I48 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

bustion of the greater portion of the zinc contained in it, 
which explains the change of color frequently observed in 
brass fused for some time in contact with air. 

Old copper derived from worn-out copper articles is fre- 
quently used in the manufacture of brass. Such copper 
contains, however, generally foreign metals in the shape of 
solder, etc., which may exert either a favorable or an in- 
jurious influence upon the properties of the brass. Lead, 
tin, and iron are the most frequently occuring contamina- 
tions. If the brass is to be used for castings, their injur- 
ious influence is not so great as in the manufacture of thin 
sheet or wire. To brass intended for castings up to two 
per cent, of lead is frequently added, such addition making 
the alloy somewhat harder, and depriving it at the same 
time of the disagreeable property of fouling the tools in 
working, which is of special importance in filing and turn- 
ing. In casting brass containing lead care must, however, 
be had to cool the castings very rapidly, as otherwise the 
lead readily separates in the lower portion of the casting 
and produces unsightly spots. 

By a slight addition of tin the brass becomes more 
fusible, somewhat denser, and takes a better polish ; it is 
also rendered somewhat less brittle. The presence of a 
small quantity of iron increases the hardness of brass con- 
siderably, such brass on exposure to the air being, how- 
ever, easily stained by rust. 

In the arts brass is commonly employed in the construc- 
tion of scientific apparatus, mathematical instruments, small 
parts of machinery, and for many other purposes. A dis- 
tinction is generally made between sheet brass used in the 
manufacture of wire and sheets, and cast-brass, which re- 
quires no further rnechanical manipulation than turning and 
riling. A number of alloys occur in commerce under var- 
ious names, but, as regards their composition, they must 
be included in the generic term, brass, though some of 
them are especially adapted for certain purposes. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



149 



The table given below shows the manner in which the 
properties of the finished alloy are affected by its composi- 
tion. In the column " cohesion " is given the weight in 
tons required for breaking a bar of one square centimeter. 
The minimum of hardness and fusibility is denoted by 1. 



Composition of 

the alloys 
according to 



Equiva- 


Per 


lent's 


cent. 


Cu:Zn. 


Cu. 


1:0 


100 


10:1 


90.72 


9:1 


89.80 


8:1 


88.60 


7:1 


87.30 


6:1 


85.40 


S:i 


83.02 


4:1 


79.6s 


3:1 


74.58 


2:1 


66.18 


1:1 


49-47 


1:2 


32.85 


8:17 


31-52 


8:18 


30.36 


8:19 


29.17 


8:20 


28.12 


8:21 


27. TO 


8:22 


26.24 


8:2^ 


25-39 


1:3 


24-50 


1:4 


19.65 


1:5 


16.36 


0:1 


0. 



Properties of the alloys. 



ui 



8667 
8-505 
8.607 
8.633 
8.^87 
8.591 
8.415 
8.448 
8.397 
8.299 
8.J30 
8.263 
7-721 
7-836 
7-019 
7.603 
7.058 
7.882 
7-443 
7-449 
7-371 
6.605 
6.895 



Color. 



Fracture. 



red 
reddish-yellow 



yellowish-red 



pale yellow 
vivid yellow 

dark yellow 
silver-white 

pale gray 
ash gray 
pale gray 

ash gray 



dark gray 
pale gray 



coarse-grained 



fine-fibrous 



coarse-grained 
conchoidal 



vitreous 
conchoidal 



finegrained 



U 



24.61 
12. 1 
11. sl 
12.8I 

13-2 

14.1 
13.7 
14.7 

I3-I 
12.5! 
9.2' 
19.3! 
2.11 
2.2 
0.7 
3-2 

0.9 
0.8 
S-9 
3-1 
1-9 
1.8 
IS-2 



Ductility at 
59° F. 



very brittle 

brittle 

very brittle 

slightly ductile 

very brittle 

brittle 



ffi|tt- 

22|I5 
21 14 
20iI3 
I9|I2 
l8lll 
17(10 

16! 9 

I5 ! 8 

14' 7 

13 6 

T2] 6 

io, 6 

5: 5 
6i S 

7 5 
3 5 
9 S 

8 5 
1 5 

4 
3 



Sheet brass (for the manufacture of sheet and wire). 
Especially pure metals, as free as possible from foreign 
bodies injurious to ductility (bismuth, antimony, arsenic, 
tin, lead, iron) have to be used for this purpose. Sheet to 
be stretched very thin under the hammer, for instance, the 
best quality of German sheet-brass for musical instruments 
contains, as a rule, 19 to 21 per cent, zinc, sheet still suita- 
ble for most purposes, 22 to 30 per cent., and sheet for toys 
and articles easily shaped 30 to 40 per cent. Brass for wire 
requires similar composition. 

For the purpose of investigating the influence of anti- 
mony upon the cold-shortness of brass, E. S. Sperry pre- 
pared brass plates of the best quality of Lake copper and 



150 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

refined zinc with varying quantities of antimony and tested 
their behavior in rolling and by the condition of their frac- 
tures. The hardest alloy of 60 per cent, copper and 40 per 
cent, zinc was selected so that the influence of the addition 
of antimony should be more apparent. The additions of 
antimony amounted to 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.65 per 
cent. While Kerl states that 0.001 per cent, of antimony 
in copper renders the brass unfit for wire and sheet, Sperry 
found that brass with 0.006 per cent. — hence from copper 
with 0.01 per cent. — antimony could be satisfactorily rolled; 
with softer alloys the influence of the same quantity of anti- 
mony is said to be still less injurious. A content of 0.02 
per cent, antimony could be readily recognized by the con- 
dition of the fracture. Since some brands of electrolytic 
copper contain from 0.001 to 0.08 per cent, of antimony 
and are generally used for brass without being previously 
tested, the objections of some manufacturers to such copper 
are readily explained. 

Filings and turnings always contain small quantities of 
iron particles and hence are not suitable as an addition to 
the better qualities of brass. Silesian zinc, as a rule, con- 
tains not less than 0.75 per cent. lead. Missouri zinc is 
very pure, and also Spanish zinc, brand R. C. A. Refinado, 
the latter being free from arsenic, antimony and sulphur, 
and contains only 0.05 per cent, lead and a trace of iron ; it 
is used for the best quality of sheet-brass (cartridge shells). 
The more sheet-brass is to resist the action of acid and 
alkaline fluids, the richer in copper it should be, and ac- 
cordingly, the following proportions of copper to zinc may 
be recommended : 70 : 30, 66 : 34, and 60 : 40. Brass for 
cartridge shells contains 72 parts copper and 28 parts zinc, 
with at the utmost 0.25 per cent, lead, or still better en- 
tirely free from lead. 

The best evidence of the quality of a brand of copper is 
that it yields brass suitable for the preparation of thin sheet 
and wire, and the sharpest test for the quality of the cop- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



151 



per consists in that when the brass is drawn out to tubes 
over a corebar, the tubes show no cracks. The following 
analyses show the composition of different varieties of brass 
for sheet and wire. 



Brass. 



Sheet 



Place of derivation. 



Wire 



Jemappes 
Stolberg 
Romany 
Rosthorn (Vienna) 



Iserlohn and Romilly 
Ludenscheid 

(brittle) 

Hegermtihl 
pker 
England 
[Augsburg 
Neustadt-Eberswalde 



(Good quality) 

(Brittle) 

(Good composition for 
sheet and wire) 

China, best quality 
brass 

China, ordinary qual- 
ity brass 



Copper. 


Zinc- 


64.6 


33-7 


64.8 


32.8 


70.1 


29.26 


68.1 


31-9 


7i-5 


28.5 


71.36 


28.15 


71.10 


27.6 


70-1 


29.9 


72.73 


27.27 


63.66 


33.02 


70.16 


27.45 


69.98 


29.54 


70.29 


29.26 


71.89 


27.63 


70.16 


27.45 


71.36 


28. 1 5 


7i. 5 


28.5 


71.0 


27.6 


65.4 


14-6 


65.5 


32.4 


67 


32 


10 


5 


10 


2.7 



Lead. 



1.4 

2.0 

0.28 

trace 



2.52 
079 
0.97 
0.28 
0.8s 
0.20 



Tin. 



0.2 

0.4 
0.17 



Silicon. Antimony. Iron. 

i 






Japanese brass (Schin-chiu) contains as a rule 30 parts 
zinc to 70 parts copper, though there are also alloys with 
35 parts zinc. 

Alloys with 34 to 37 and 40 per cent, zinc are frequently 
used for the manufacture of sheet and wire, sheet with 37 
per cent, zinc being distinguished by extraordinary tough- 
ness and ductility in a cold state. 

Cast-brass being used for the most diverse purposes, it is 
difficult to give a composition of general value, since the 
demands made on this metal vary much according to the 
article to be manufactured, it being used for very ordinary 
wares, such as locks, keys, shields, escutcheons, buttons, 
hinges, etc., as well as for the finest mechanical instruments 
and objects of art. 

As a rule cast-brass contains more zinc than that which 
is to be worked into sheet and wire. It is therefore more 



152 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



fusible, but at the same time harder and more brittle than 
wire-brass. The materials not being chosen with such 
great care as for wire, a chemical analysis reveals frequently 
the presence of a considerable number of foreign metals. 
The turnings, chips, and other brass waste are generally 
utilized by melting them together by themselves, or as ad- 
dition in fusing cast-brass. As, besides brass, such waste 
frequently contains iron and bronze, the contamination of 
the cast-brass with iron, tin, and lead is readily accounted 
for ; sometimes a small quantity of arsenic is also found. 
Cast-brass is also much used in the manufacture of the so- 
called hard solder for soldering articles exposed to a high 
temperature. In the following table we give an analysis of 
different kinds of cast-brass, which shows the great varia- 
tions in its composition. 



Variety. 



Copper. 
Per cent. 



Cast brass from Oker 71. 

Cast brass from Oker 64.24 

Black Forest clock wheels. 60.66 

Black Forest clock wheels. 66.06 

Cast brass from Iserlohn.. 63.7 

Cast brass from Iserlohn.. 64.5 
French yellow brass {Potin\ 

jaune) j 71.9 

English sterling metal . . . . 66.2 

English sterling metal. . . . 66.66 



Zinc. 


Iron. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


24.42 


2.32 


I.09 


— 


i 37-27 


0.12 


0.59 


— 


36.88 


O.74 


— 


i-35 


; 31.46 


1-43 


0.88 




1 33-5 


— 


0.3 


2.5 


32.4 


— 


2.9 


0.2 


24.9 


— 


2.0 


1.2 


33-11 


0.66 


2.0 


— 


26.66 


0.66 


— 


— 



Ordinary cast-brass {potin jaune, potin gris, sterling 
metal). — The mixture of metals known under these names 
is the poorest quality of brass, and its composition varies 
so much as to make it impossible to state it within narrow 
limits. This quality of brass is generally prepared by fus- 
ing together old brass-waste of all kinds and subjecting it 
to a casting test. If the fracture is not too coarse-grained 
and the metal not too brittle, it is used without further ad- 
dition for articles known under the collective term of 
brazier's ware (spigots, candlesticks, mortars, etc.). Brass 



COPPER ALLOYS. 153 

of this quality is readily worked with the file, but difficult 
to turn. 

By adding to ordinary cast-brass a certain quantity of 
lead and tin, a metal of a somewhat whiter color is ob- 
tained, which is called potin gris by the French, and is more 
easily worked with the lathe and file. The so-called " ster- 
ling metal'" is somewhat harder in consequence of a con- 
tent of iron, and can therefore be much better worked than 
ordinary brass. By adding to sterling metal some tin, it 
acquires still greater hardness and takes a good polish. 

Fine cast-brass. — Brass to be suitable for the manufacture 
of fine articles must, besides being readily worked with file 
and chisel, possess other properties of great importance in 
the manufacture of such articles. It should allow of being 
readily cast and fill the moulds exactly. Further, articles 
of luxury manufactured from brass are frequently to be 
gilded, and experience has shown that brass of a beautiful 
color approaching that of gold requires less gold for the 
purpose than brass of an Unsightly pale-yellow color. In 
order to be enabled to save gold, it is therefore of import- 
ance to manufacture the alloy so as to show a color shad- 
ing into reddish. Generally speaking, such alloys contain 
from 20 to 50 parts of zinc to ioo parts of copper ; lead or 
tin, or both, in the proportion of 0.25 to 3 per cent, of 
each metal being added, according to the purpose for which 
the alloy is to be used. In the following we give the com- 
positions of several alloys which have stood a practical test 
in this respect. 

Tough brass for tubes. — In chemical factories tubes and 
other utensils of brass are frequently used, which must be cap- 
able of resisting chemical influences as well as pressure. In 
preparing alloys for this purpose very pure materials should 
be employed. The following compositions may be recom- 
mended : 

I. II. III. IV. 

Copper 80 70 66 60 

Zinc 20 30 34 40 



154 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Alloy No. I. is used chiefly in England ; the other three 
are employed in German factories. 

Hamilton 's metal, mosaic gold, chrysorin. — The alloys 
known under the above names have a very beautiful color, 
closely resembling that of gold, and are distinguished by a 
very fine grain, which makes them especially suitable for 
the manufacture of castings to be subsequently gilded. 
The alloys are, as a rule, composed of copper, too parts ; 
zinc, 50 to 55. 

In order to obtain a thoroughly homogeneous mixture 
of the two metals it is recommended first to bring into the 
the crucible one-half of the zinc to be used ; place upon this 
the copper, and fuse the mixture under a cover of borax at 
as low a temperature as possible. When the contents of 
the crucible are liquid, heat the other half of the zinc, pre- 
viously cut in small pieces, until almost melted, and throw 
it into the crucible in portions ; stir constantly, to effect 
as intimate a mixture of the metals as possible. 

French cast-brass for fine castings. — As is well known, the 
bronze industry has reached a high degree of perfection in 
France, where clock-cases, statuettes, and other articles of 
luxury are manufactured on a large scale. The so-called 
bronze used for these articles is, however, in most cases not 
actual bronze, but fine cast-brass. In the following table 
we give the compositions of a few mixtures of metals 
generally used by the French manufacturers. They can be 
readily cast, worked with file or chisel, and easily gilded. 







Parts. 






I. 

63.70 

33-55 
2.50 
0.25 


II. 

64-45 

32.44 

0.25 

2.86 


III. 

70.90 

24.05 

2.00 

3-05 


IV. 


Copper 

Zinc 

Tin 

Lead 


72-43 

22.75 

1.87 

2.95 







COPPER ALLOYS. 155 

Bristol brass {Prince s metal). — The alloy known by this 
name possesses properties similar to those of the above- 
mentioned French varieties of brass, and can be prepared 
according to the following proportions : 

I. II. III. 

Copper.'. 75-7 67.2 60.8 

Zinc 24.3 32.8 39.2 

Regarding the preparation of this and similar alloys, the 
same holds good as has been said under Hamilton's metal. 

Ronia metal consists of brass, with a small quantity of 
cobalt, manganese, and phosphorus. 

D'Arcet's gilding metals have the following composition : 

I. II. III. IV. 

Copper 63.70 64.45 70.90 72.43 

Zinc 33.55 32.44 24.05 22.75 

Tin 2.50 0.25 2.00 1.87 

Lead 0.25 2.86 3.05 2.95 

Specific gravity 8.395 8.542 8.492 8.275 

Malleable brass. — For castings which are to be shaped by 
forging or rolling, copper alloys rich in zinc (Muntz metal) 
and copper-zinc-iron alloys (Aich metal, sterro-metal, delta 
metal) are especially suitable, as they possess great 
strength, and the valuable property of being ductile in the 
cold as well as at a red heat. A content of i to 3 per cent. 
of iron is claimed to increase the malleability at a red heat. 
It is not yet decided whether the small content of iron pro- 
duces these properties, or whether they are due to the ab- 
sorption of the oxygen of the copper by the iron. By a 
larger addition of iron the ductility of the alloys is im- 
paired. The observation that brass, which as ordinarily 
composed is brittle at a red heat, becomes ductile at that 
temperature when it contains not less than 35 per cent., 
and not more than, 45 per cent, of zinc, appears to have 
first been made by J. Keir of Westbromwich, near Birming- 
ham, who, in 1779, took out a patent for a metallic mixture 



I56 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of copper 54, zinc 40.5, and iron 5, which could be forged 
cold as well as at a red heat. This alloy was to be used for 
ship-sheathing, in the manufacture of nails and rivets com- 
ing in contact with sea-water, etc. The matter fell into ob- 
livion, and in 1832 another Englishman, Muntz, took out a 
patent for an alloy of copper, 60 parts, and zinc, 40 parts, 
or copper 56, zinc 43 %, and lead 3^, intended for the 
same purposes. This alloy became known as Muntz metal 
or malleable brass. It is still employed, chiefly for ship- 
sheathing, bolts and rivets, instead of copper, because it is 
claimed that the sea-water attacks the zinc gradually and 
uniformly over the entire surface, and that it prevents the 
deposit of barnacles, etc. According to the most recent 
investigations, this brass, however, is corroded not uni- 
formly, but in holes. 

To the malleable varieties of brass belong : 
Malleable brass, Muntz metal, yellow metal, etc. — These 
alloys possess the valuable property of being ductile in the 
heat, and castings prepared from them can be worked warm 
like iron. 

Yellozv metal. — This metal possesses the property of 
being less attacked by sea-water than pure copper, and it 
was formerly much used for ship-sheathing and in the man- 
ufacture of nails and rivets coming in contact with sea- 
water. Since the introduction of iron as material for larger 
vessels it has, however, lost some of its former importance. 
Yellow metal or Muntz metal (so-called after its inventor) 
consists generally of copper 60 to 62 parts, zinc 40 to 38. 

The metal is prepared with the observance of certain 
precautionary measures in order to obtain it with as uni- 
form a grain as possible, experience having shown that 
only fine-grained alloys of uniform density can resist sea- 
water. To obtain as uniform a grain as possible, small 
samples taken from the fused mass are quickly cooled and 
examined as to fracture. If the latter does not show the 
desired uniform grain, some zinc is added to the fused 



COPPER ALLOYS. 157 

mass. When this zinc has been intimately mixed with the 
mass a fresh sample is taken and tested, this being con- 
tinued until the desired object is attained. It need scarcely 
be mentioned that considerable experience is required to 
tell the correct composition of the alloy from the fracture. 
The mass is finally poured into moulds and rolled cold. 

Macht's yellow metal. — This alloy, consisting of copper 
33 parts and zinc 25, has a dark golden-yellow color, great 
strength, and can be forged at a red heat, properties which 
make it especially suitable for fine castings. 

Bobierre's metal, consisting of copper 66 parts and zinc 
34, is claimed to be especially suitable for ship-sheathing. 

From experiments made it has been learned that all 
alloys containing up to 58.33 per cent, of copper and up 
to 41.67 per cent, of zinc are malleable. There is, how- 
ever, a second group of such alloys with 61.54 per cent, 
of copper and 38.46 per cent, of zinc, which are also malle- 
able in the heat. The preparation of these alloys requires, 
however, considerable experience. It is best effected by 
melting the metals together in the ordinary manner, and 
heating the fused mass as strongly as possible; it must, 
however, be covered with a layer of charcoal-dust to pre- 
vent oxidation of the zinc. By the mass becoming thinly- 
fluid an intimate mixture of the constituent parts is effected. 
Small pieces of the same alloy previously prepared are then 
thrown into the liquid mass until it no longer shows a re- 
flecting surface, when it is cast into ingots in iron moulds. 
The ingots while still red-hot are thrown into water, ac- 
quiring by this treatment the highest degree of ductility. 
The alloy properly prepared must show a fibrous fracture 
and have a reddish-yellow color. 

Az'ck's metal. — This alloy named after its inventor, con- 
sists of a brass to which a considerable degree of tenacity 
has been imparted by an addition of iron. It is especially 
adapted for purposes where the use of a hard and, at the 
same time, strong metal is required. 



I58 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

According to analyses of various kinds of this metal, it 
shows, like other alloys, considerable variations in the 
quantity of the metals used in its preparation. Even the 
content of iron, to which the hardening effect is ascribed, 
may vary within wide limits without the strength, which is 
the principal property of this alloy, being modified to a 
considerable extent. 

The best alloy, which can be called an Aich's metal, is 
composed of copper 60 parts, zinc 38.2, iron 1.8. The con- 
tent of iron must be limited to from 0.4 to 3.0 per cent. 
Another Aich's metal showing excellent properties is com- 
posed of copper 60.2 parts, zinc 38.2, iron 1.6. 

The hardness of Aich's metal is claimed to be not in- 
ferior to that of certain kinds of steel. It has a beautiful 
golden-yellow color, and is said to oxidize with difficulty, 
which makes it of great value for articles exposed to the 
action of air and water. 

Sterro-metal. — The properties of this alloy approach 
closely those of Aich's metal. It consists of an alloy of 
copper, zinc, and iron, but contains a larger quantity of 
the latter. The composition of the alloy may vary consid- 
erably, a little tin being sometimes added. We give in the 
following an analysis of two varieties of sterro-metal of ex- 
cellent quality : 

Sterro-metal from Rosthorn s factory in Lower Austria* 
— Copper 55.33 parts, zinc 41.80, iron 4.66. 

English sterro-metal ( Gedge's alloy for ship-sheathing) . 
— Copper 60 parts, zinc 38.125, iron 1.5. 

The principal value of this alloy is its great strength, in 
which it is not surpassed by the best steel. While a 
wrought-iron pipe broke with a pressure of 267 atmos- 
pheres, a similar pipe of sterro-metal stood the enormous 
pressure of 763 atmospheres without cracking. Beside its 
strength it also possesses a high degree of elasticity, and 
on account of these properties is especially adapted for 
cylinders of hydraulic presses. As is well known, these 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



!59 



cylinders begin to sweat at a certain pressure, i. e., the 
pressure in the interior is so great that the water permeates 
through the pores of the steel. With a cylinder of sterro- 
metal the pressure can be considerably increased without 
the exterior of the cylinder showing any moisture. 

According to the purpose for which it is to be used, the 
sterro-metal can be made especially hard and dense, but 
this change in its properties is less effected by altering the 
chemical composition than by mechanical manipulation. 

If cast sterro-metal be rolled or hammered in the heat, 
it acquires, besides strength, an exceedingly high degree of 
toughness. In hammering the metal special care must be 
had not to overheat it, as otherwise it easily becomes 
brittle, and cracks under the hammer. 

A sterro-metal containing copper 55.04, zinc 42.36, tin 
0.83, and iron 1.77 was tested by Baron de Rosthorn, of 
Vienna, and gave the following results : * 





Tenacity. 


Material. 


Lbs. per square 
inch. 


Kilogrammes per 
sq. centimetre. 


Sterro-metal cast 


60,480 
76,160 
83,120 
40,320 


4252 
5354 
5984 
2834 


Sterro-metal forged 


Sterro-metal cold drawn 

Gun-bronze cast 





The specific gravity of this metal was 8.37 to 8.40 when 
forged or wire-drawn ; it has great elasticity, stretching 
0.0017 without set, and costs 30 to 40 per cent, less than 
gun-bronze. It has been forged into guns, cold from the 
casting. 

Delta metal. — This alloy was introduced in 1883, by Mr- 
Alexander Dick, and on account of its strength and power 
of resisting the action of chemical influences is much used 

*Holley. " Ordnance and Armor." 



l60 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

in the construction of machinery as a substitute for the 
more expensive bronze. The name "delta" was given to 
it by Mr. Dick, simply for the purpose of connecting it 
with his own name, delta being the Greek for the letter D, 
the initial of his surname. 

Delta metal is a somewhat ferriferous brass with a fixed 
content of zinc — 40 to 43 per cent. It is malleable at a 
red heat and distinguished by its strength. To prevent 
oxidation in remelting and to keep the composition invar- 
iable a small percentage of phosphor-copper or, still better, 
manganese-copper is added, That a content of iron is 
capable of increasing the strength of brass has been re- 
ferred to in speaking of similar alloys, but in using such 
alloys containing iron many failures result because the iron 
alloys only with difficulty, and not always uniformly, with the 
other two metals. In making delta metal this drawback is 
overcome by first preparing an iron-zinc alloy with 8.5 per 
cent, iron, by dissolving the iron in melted zinc heated to a 
red heat, and combining this alloy with the rest of the 
metals. Besides iron, some manufacturers add small quan- 
tities of tin and lead ; in some samples the presence of 
nickel has also been established. Examinations of articles 
of delta metal showed the following composition : 

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 

Copper 55-94 55-8o 55.82 54.22 58.65 

Zinc 41.61 40.07 41.41 42.25 38.95 

Lead 0.72 1.82 0.76 1.10 0.67 

Iron 0.87 1.28 0.86 0.99 1.62 

Manganese 0.81 0.96 1.38 1.09 — 

Nickel trace trace 0.06 0.16 0.11 

Phosphorus...... 0.113 o.on trace 0.02 — 

No. I. is cast delta metal, No. II. wrought, No. III. 
rolled, and No. IV. hot stamped. 

The advantages claimed for delta metal are great strength 
and toughness. It produces sound castings of close grain. 
It can be rolled and forged hot, and can stand a certain 



COPPER ALLOYS. l6l 

amount of drawing and hammering when cold. It takes a 
high polish, and when exposed to the atmosphere tarnishes 
less than brass,. 

When cast in sand delta metal has a tensile strength of 
about 45,000 pounds per square inch, and about 10 per 
cent, elongation ; when rolled, tensile strength of 60,000 to 
75,000 pounds per square inch, elongation from 9 to 17 per 
cent, on bars 1.128 inch in diameter and 1 inch area.* 

Wallace f gives the ultimate tensile strength as 33,600 to 
51,520 pounds per square inch, with from 10 to 20 per 
cent, elongation. 

Durana metal. — The alloy brought into commerce under 
this name resembles delta metal, but is somewhat richer in 
copper, and frequently contains tin, as well as antimony 
and aluminium. Five analyses gave the mean composition 
as follows : % 

Tin 
Copper Zinc Iron Aluminium Antimony 

64.78 29.50 1.71 1.70 2.22 

Like delta metal the alloy can be worked at a red heat, 
and is distinguished by its strength. 

Tobin bronze. — As regards composition and properties 
this alloy closely resembles delta metal. Analyses of various 
samples showed the following results : 

I. II. III. iv. 

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 

Copper 61.203 59-00 61.20 82.67 

Zinc 27.440 38.40 37.14 3-23 

Tin 0.906 2.16 0.90 12.40 

Iron 0.180 0.11 0.18 0.10 

Lead 0.359 0.31 0.35 2.14 

Silver — — — 0.07 

Phosphorus — — — 0.005 

* Iron (London) Vol. 21, p. 159. 

tTrans. of the Institution of Naval Architects, 1888, p. 374. 
JjZeitschrift fur angewandte Chemie. 1894. 
II 



l62 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The Ansonia Brass and Copper Company are, according 
to F. Lynwood Garrison,* the sole manufacturers of Tobin 
bronze. They claim to obtain 79,600 pounds per square 
inch tensile strength, an elastic limit of 54,257 pounds per 
square inch, and from 12 to 17 per cent, elongation with 
best rolled one-inch bars. 

Tobin bronze, according to the inventor's claim, can be 
forged and stamped at a red heat as readily as steel. Bolts 
and nuts can be forged from it by hand or machinery, when 
cold drawn. Its increased density and high elastic limit, 
and the facility with which it can be upset, while hot, make 
it well adapted for special purposes. In forging Tobin 
bronze, it is stated that particular care must be taken to 
work it only at a cherry-red heat, and that it should not 
be worked at a black heat. 

Alloy No. IV., given in the above table, is brought into 
commerce under the name of 

Deoxidized bronze. It seems probable some deoxidizing 
flux containing phosphorus, similar to that used in the 
manufacture of phosphor-bronze, is made use of in the 
manufacture of this alloy. Deoxidized bronze is largely 
used for wood-pulp digesters, as it is found to resist the 
action of sodium hyposulphite and sulphurous acid remark- 
ably well. Deoxidized bronze wire has a tensile strength 
in the neighborhood of 150,000 pounds per square inch.f 

Of the mixtures of metals termed brass, the alloys given 
in the preceding are the most important used in the indus- 
tries with the exception of aluminium brasses, which will be 
discussed under " Aluminium Alloys," ChapterXI. It will, 
of course, be understood that they by no means exhaust the 
number of alloys which can be included in the generic term, 
brass, that number being so large that they can scarcely be 

* New Alloys and their Engineering Applications. Jour, of the Franklin 
Institute, June and September, 1891. 

fF. Lynwood Garrison, New Alloys and their Engineering Application. 
Jour, of the Franklin, Inst., June and September, 1891. 



COPPER ALLOYS. 163 

enumerated. In examining a variety of brass, small varia- 
tions in its quantitative composition can always be observed. 
No matter how small these variations may be, they never- 
theless exert a great influence upon the physical properties 
of the respective alloys, so that an alloy differing but little 
in its chemical composition from another one, may never- 
theless vary very much from it in regard to its physical 
qualities. Many manufacturers are of opinion that the 
physical properties of the alloys are also largely influenced 
by the mode of manufacture, and those whose products are 
especially distinguished by great uniformity always work 
according to a determined method. Hence the manufacture 
of brass is of equal importance with the composition of the 
alloys. 

MANUFACTURE OF BRASS. 

Before zinc was known in the metallic form, brass was 
prepared by fusing together with zinciferous ores, such as 
calamine or carbonate of zinc, as well as with cadmia, the 
zinc reduced by this process combining with the copper to 
an alloy. As is well known, the chemical composition 
of even the purest ores from the same locality always vary 
somewhat and it is almost impossible to obtain a mixture 
of metals of fixed properties and general uniformity. For 
the sake of completeness this antiquated process of manu- 
facturing brass will here be briefly described. Manufac- 
turers still working according to it, must, on the one hand, 
use very uniform zinc ore and, on the other, possess a 
thorough knowledge of the properties of brass so as to be 
able to tell from the color and fracture of a sample of the 
fused mass, whether the alloy possesses the requisite quali- 
ties or whether it requires the addition of a further quantity 
of zinc ore or of copper. The production of brass with the 
use of zinc ores is less expensive, but more tedious and 
troublesome than by the direct fusion of pure metals. 

a. Manufacture of brass according to the old method 
with the use of zinc ores. — Previous to melting, the ores 



164 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

have to be subjected to a preparatory treatment to remove, 
as far as possible, admixtures of foreign metals such as 
lead, arsenic, antimony, which would impair the quality of 
the brass. The native calamine is calcined to expel car- 
bonic acid, sulphur and other volatile matter, and forms zinc 
oxide. The calcined ore is then ground in a mill, the 
galena contained in it removed by washing, and the dried 
ore mixed with about one-fourth its volume of charcoal. 
The mixture is brought into large crucibles with alternate 
layers of granulated copper. Powdered charcoal is then 
thrown over the whole and the crucibles are covered and 
luted. The old form of furnace consisted of a cone with 
base downward and the apex cut off horizontally. The 
crucibles were placed upon a circular grate or perforated 
iron-plate upon the hearth. A sufficient quantity of fuel 
was heaped around the crucibles, and a perforated cover of 
bricks or clay was fitted to the mouth which served as a 
register to regulate the heat. After the alloy is supposed 
to be formed (the time varying from 10 to 20 hours, ac- 
cording to the nature of the calamine and the size of the 
crucibles), the heat is increased, so as to fuse the whole 
down into one mass. The till is then thrown up, and a 
workman, standing over the opening, grasps the crucible 
between the jaws of a pair of tongs and lifts it out of the 
furnace. The refuse is skimmed off, and another workman 
then seizes the crucible with a pair of tongs and pours the 
contents into iron moulds, guiding the stream with an iron 
rod. During this process there is a considerable combus- 
tion of zinc, the metal burning with its characteristic blue 
flame. When the material is good a single fusion is suffi- 
cient, but the finer sorts undergo a second fusion with fresh 
calamine and charcoal. 

The crude brass may show several defects in regard to its 
composition. It may either contain too much zinc or cop- 
per, or the reduction of the zinc may not have proceeded 
in a complete manner. In such cases it is possible to im- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 165 

prove the alloy by a corresponding addition of copper, 
zinc ore, or charcoal, and by again fusing it. Sometimes 
pieces of brass or metallic zinc are also added. 

b. Manufacture of brass by the direct fusion of the 
metals. — At the first glance this would appear to be a very 
simple operation ; it is, however connected with many diffi- 
culties, and considerable skill is required to produce brass 
answering determined demands in regard to fusibility, ten- 
acity, etc. In most factories the fusion of the metals is 
still effected in crucibles heated in reverberatory furnaces. 
For many years experiments have been made to do away 
with the crucibles and effect the fusion of the metals di- 
rectly in special furnaces. It is evident that such a process 
of production would be considerably cheaper, as there 
would be no expense for crucibles and the consumption of 
fuel be considerably less. The use of a furnace in which 
the metals could be melted down in large quantities would 
have the further advantage of obtaining at one. operation a 
large quantity of brass of the same quality. 

The results of experiments made in this direction have, 
however, been so unsatisfactory as to force a return to the 
older and more expensive method of fusion in crucibles. 
The general introduction of furnaces for melting down the 
brass cannot, however, be considered as entirely abandoned, 
as the technical difficulties in the way will, no doubt, be 
overcome, before long. More recently experiments on a 
large scale have again been instituted by well-known manu- 
facturers, which hold out a hope of final success. For the 
present we must, however, confine ourselves to a descrip- 
tion of the best constructions of furnaces for crucibles. 

The manner of constructing these furnaces depends 
chiefly on the fuel to be used (coal, coke) and on the num- 
ber of crucibles to be placed in the furnace at one time. 
Generally speaking, the furnaces for a certain kind of fuel 
agree in most respects, the variations being chiefly in the 
arrangement of the crucibles in the furnace, and the man- 
ner of distributing the flame around them. 



1 66 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



We first give a description of a furnace especially adapted 
for the use of coke. 

The furnace, Figs. 10 and u, consists of a vault of re- 
fractory material and is about 3% feet high. On the nar- 
rowest place of the vault is an aperture through which the 
furnace communicates with a well-drawing chimney. The 



Figs, io and u. 




plate upon which the crucibles for melting the brass stand 
has seven apertures so arranged that six of them are in the 
periphery of a circle, while the seventh forms the center of 
the circle. Between these larger apertures serving for the 
reception of the crucibles are smaller ones, which admit 
the air from below into the furnace. The bottom plate 
consists of a thick cast-iron plate coated with a layer of 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



167 



fire-clay. The six crucibles standing on the periphery of 
the circle have a height of 1.18 feet, with an upper diameter 
of 0.65 foot, which corresponds to a bottom diameter of 
0.55 foot. 

The crucible sitting in the center hole is called the king 
crucible, and being more exposed to the heat is generally 
somewhat larger; it is, as a rule, 1.18 feet high with an 



Fig. 12. 




ii|ft|fl! fe - 



upper diameter of 0.75 foot. The smaller crucibles hold 
about 92 to 97 pounds of metal each, and the king crucible 
about 132 pounds. 

Fig. 12 shows another construction of a brass furnace. 
As will be seen from the illustration, the space in which 
the crucibles are placed has the form of two truncated 
cones touching each other with the basis, a shaft being 



i68 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



thus formed in which less fuel is consumed than in a fur- 
nace having the form of a cylinder. In place of coke, char- 
coal may be used in this furnace if the local conditions are 
such as to allow of its employment without increasing the 
cost of the brass. 

In the preparation of plate-brass the fused metal has to 
be cast in special moulds to solidify. It is, however, of 
importance that this solidification should not take place too 
rapidly, as otherwise the properties of the brass might be 

Fig. 13. 




injured. To prevent too rapid cooling the moulds serving 
for the reception of the fused mass are strongly heated, 
special furnaces having been constructed for the purpose 
in which the gases escaping from the actual melting space 
are utilized for heating the moulds. Fig. 13 shows the 
construction of such a furnace in cross-section. 

The crucibles in which the charge is to be melted stand 
upon a grate; the fuel is introduced from above, and the 
gases of combustion pass through a flue into a space 



COPPER ALLOYS. 169 

divided into several low stories in which the moulds are 
placed. With the use of coke or charcoal the work is very 
convenient, since no smoke is developed which could possi- 
bly contain combustible combinations. As will be seen 
from the above descriptions of furnaces for the use of coke 
or charcoal, no special provisions are required to insure a 
complete combustion of the fuel, it being sufficient to con- 
nect the furnace with a chimney producing a moderately 
strong draught, With the use of coal care must, however, 
be had to arrange the furnace in such a manner as to insure 
the complete combustion of all gaseous products evolved 
from the coal, as otherwise there would be a considerable 
loss of heat. 

The arrangement of furnaces for the use of coal is modi- 
fied in various ways. In one form of construction the coal 
is burned upon an ordinary grate, the gases of combustion 
passing through apertures in a vault of refractory material 
into a space in which the crucibles are placed. In other 
constructions, the fire-box is entirely separated from the 
melting-space, being only connected with it by flues led off 
at the sides through which the flame passes around the 
crucibles. Other constructions might be advantageously 
used for melting down brass. By, for instance, arranging 
the furnace so as to heat the crucibles by gas, the flame 
could be suitably regulated by a slide, and with the use of 
a generating furnace a number of melting furnaces could be 
kept going at one time. The generating furnace would, of 
course, have to be placed so as to form the center of a 
circle on the periphery of which the separate melting furn- 
aces are located and connected with the generating furnace 
by suitable flues. With, suppose, six such melting furnaces, 
three could be supplied with heat, while the others, after 
the removal of the crucibles, would be charged with fresh 
material. 

Fig. 14 shows Piat's revolving crucible furnace. The 
crucible remains stationary in the furnace, at least for 



170 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



several meltings. Fusion itself is effected by burning coke 
heaped around the crucible, combustion being accelerated 
by a blower. The blast-flue enters below the grate upon 
which is placed the crucible-stand, and the products of 
combustion pass through a pipe in the upper portion of the 
furnace into a chimney, or with larger furnaces into a hot 
blast-stove. The illustration shows the furnace in a verti- 
cal (working) position. From this position it can, after 
shutting off the blast, be brought by revolving around a 
horizontal axis into the position required for pouring out 
the metal, a spout with which the crucible is provided fit- 

Fig. 14. 




ting accurately to the pouring gutter of the furnace. In 
case the mould cannot be brought to the furnace, the latter 
is so constructed as to allow of being raised and being 
brought to the mould by means of a crane ; the furnace 
together with its support may also be placed upon a car- 
riage. With the use of such a furnace lifting the crucibles 
with tongs is entirely done away with. 

In conclusion a few words may be said in regard to the 
construction of furnaces in which the fusion of the brass is 
effected directly upon the hearth. Generally speaking, they 
must be so arranged that the copper can be quickly melted 
down upon a flat hearth, care being had that the gases pass- 



COPPER ALLOYS. \J\ 

ing over the copper contain a small excess of unburnt 
bodies, as the presence of free oxygen in the gases might 
produce an oxidation of the copper, and the resulting ad- 
mixture of cuprous oxide injure the quality of the brass. 
After being fused the copper is to be strongly heated, 
and the zinc, together with any brass waste, both previously 
heated, introduced as quickly as possible. It is advisable 
to connect the furnace with two preparatory heating spaces, 
showing different temperatures. In the space showing the 
lowest temperature the zinc is heated as nearly as possible 
to its melting point, and in the hotter space the brass waste 
which is to be added to the fused mass. 

By introducing, as rapidly as possible, the materials thus 
heated into the heated copper, a too rapid cooling off of 
the latter by yielding heat to the zinc need not be feared. 
By this precautionary measure of preparatory heating the 
metal will remain thinly fluid, even after the introduction 
of the zinc and the waste brass, and the resulting alloy will 
be perfectly uniform as regards fracture, hardness, and color. 

The manner in which fusion is effected varies somewhat 
in the different works. In furnaces in which the king- 
crucible stands in the center of a circle and the rest on the 
periphery, the work is generally carried on as follows : 

One of the crucibles is lifted from the furnace, and being 
placed alongside of it is first charged with a small quantity 
of brass-waste mixed with a certain quantity of pulverized 
charcoal. Upon this base the mixture of copper and zinc 
in suitable proportions, previously weighed off for each 
crucible, is placed and the whole covered with a layer of a 
mixture of brass-waste and pulverized charcoal. It is also 
advisable -to cover the surface of the contents of the crucible 
with as high a layer of pulverized charcoal as possible, this 
preventing at least to some extent a too strong volatiliza- 
tion of the zinc. In brass foundries the waste resulting 
from casting and otherwise is always melted down with a 
new charge of the crucibles. The centre crucible, the so- 



172 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

called king-crucible, is generally charged last. In some 
foundries it is even customary to leave it entirely uncharged, 
it forming then, so to say, the inner casing of the furnace. 
This practice, however, cannot be recommended. 

The period of the complete fusion of the charge depends 
on the size of the crucibles, the fuel used, and on the con- 
struction of the furnace itself, but should not be longer 
than from two to five hours. After placing the crucibles 
in the furnace the fuel (if coke or charcoal be used) is 
heaped around them, or the coal placed upon the grate and 
ignited. In working with furnaces provided with a movable 
plate the latter is from time to time lifted off, in order to 
see that the surface of the melted metal remains covered 
with charcoal. When by dipping a rod into the crucibles 
it is observed that the contents are thoroughly liquefied, 
the casting can be either at once proceeded with, or sam- 
ples may first be taken to test the quality of the brass, and, 
if necessary, change its properties by additions to the fused 
mass. 

While in the course of fusion care must be had to keep 
the apertures through which the air is admitted to the fuel 
free, towards the end of the operation they are covered as 
much as possible in order to save fuel. It is also of im- 
portance not to force the heating of the finished alloy 
further than is absolutely necessary, since by strong over- 
heating a considerable portion of the zinc volatilizes, and 
the alloy may acquire properties entirely different from 
those desired. 

Casting Brass. 

The casting of brass requires certain precautionary 
measures in order to obtain homogeneous pieces as free 
from flaws as possible. As regards the mode of casting 
we especially distinguish two different methods, viz : Ingot- 
casting and plate-casting, the former serving for casting 
brick-shaped pieces, which are to be remelted for further 



COPPER ALLOYS. I 73 

working or at once brought into the required shape, and 
the latter for casting plates to be rolled out into sheets. 

a. Casting of ingots. — If the brass is to be cast in the 
shape of bricks, or cubes, or is directly to be used for cast- 
ing various articles, the operation is carried on as follows : 
The king-crucible is generally left empty, and after the 
brass in the other crucibles is thoroughly melted down, is 
lifted from the furnace and placed in a depression in front 
of it filled with glowing coals. One crucible after the other 
is then taken from the furnace and its contents emptied 
into the king-crucible. As soon as it is filled the surface 
of the fused metal contained in it is covered with charcoal 
and the whole allowed to stand quietly about 15 minutes 
in order to bring about a uniform mixing of the masses 
emptied from the different crucibles. After this period, 
the charcoal is removed from the surface, and, after vigor- 
ously stirring the contents of the crucible several times 
with an iron rod, the fused metal is poured into the moulds. 

As will be seen from the preceding description, the king- 
crucible answers here the purpose of a sump, and may be 
suitably replaced by one. For this purpose another furnace, 
in which the sump stands free and can be heated to a bright 
red heat, has to be erected in front of the furnace contain- 
ing the crucibles. This sump then serves for the reception 
of the fused brass, and by charging the king-crucible also 
with metal, the space occupied by it in the center of the 
furnace can be advantageously utilized. By arranging 
several melting furnaces around the sump-furnace and with 
a proper division of the work, only one sump is required, 
it being charged in rotation with the contents of the cru- 
cibles from the separate furnaces. 

The moulds for casting ingots of brass are similar to 
those used for casting pig-iron. The patterns for the 
moulds are of wood, and have generally the form of bricks 
with oblique sides. The patterns are pressed alongside each 
other in wet moulding sand, a small gutter being left be- 



174 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tween each two moulds through which the metal after one 
mould is filled runs into the other. 

The object being not so much to give the ingots a beauti- 
ful appearance as to obtain them in a handy form, the sand 
for making the moulds need not be especially fine. The 
cold ingots of brass have quite a rough surface, and must 
be freed from adhering grains of sand by rubbing. 

For casting articles to be subsequently turned or worked 
with the file, special care is required in making the mould. 
As a rule the ingots are remelted in a wind furnace, and 
the quality of the article to be cast is regulated by the 
addition of pieces of brass or zinc to the fused metal. For 
remelting brass graphite crucibles are generally used, less 
dross adhering to their walls than to those of the rougher 
clay crucibles. 

The moulds used for casting articles of brass are some- 
times made of loam, and must be sharply dried before use 
to prevent cracking. Suitable moulding sand is, however, 
generally preferred. The condition of the sand is of great 
importance for the surface of the cast article ; if it be too 
meager the surface is rough, and requires much after-work 
in turning or filing. Meager sand is improved by adding a 
small quantity of ordinary flour paste or some sugar syrup. 
If the sand is too fat, this property is decreased by the ad- 
dition of some finely pulverized charcoal. 

In order to obtain perfect castings great attention must 
be paid to the temperature of the fused brass. Overheated 
metal gives, as a rule, porous castings, and if it be too cool 
the mould is incompletely filled out, which with delicate 
articles may spoil the entire casting. The metal must be 
poured in an uninterrupted stream into the mould, other- 
wise flaws will, as a rule, be formed and the casting be use- 
less. In conclusion it may be remarked that in making the 
moulds, vents must be provided for the escape of the aque- 
ous vapor evolved. 

b. Casting of plate-brass. — For the preparation of sheet- 



COPPER ALLOYS. I 75 

brass or wire-brass the metal has to be cast in the form of 
plates of corresponding thickness. It being absolutely 
necessary for the metal to retain the property of ductility, 
special precautions must be taken in executing the casting. 

Many attempts have been made to use iron moulds, but in 
most cases the castings turned out failures, on account of 
the brass cooling off too rapidly. This evil might, how- 
ever, be overcome by heating the moulds in a special 
furnace previously to casting and returning them to the 
furnace after casting, where by a suitable regulation of the 
temperature, the castings could be cooled off as slowly as 
desired. Such furnace could be built on the same principle 
as the cooling furnace used in glass houses. 

Loam moulds give good castings, but have the disad- 
vantage of breaking readily, which, to be sure, might be 
overcome by edging the loam plates with band-iron. At 
present small moulds of sand are frequently used in many 
foundries, which must, of course, be thoroughly dried in 
special furnaces previously to casting. With the use of 
small moulds and careful work, faultless plates can be 
readily cast, while with large moulds it frequently happens 
that some places of the plate are defective and have to be 
cut out. 

In many places granite moulds are still in use, and yield, 
according to the statements of many manufacturers, the 
best results. The preparation of these moulds requires 
great care, the following points deserving special attention : 
The granite plates have to be provided with a uniform 
coating of clay, which must always be kept in such a con- 
dition as to insure the utmost uniformity in the surface of 
the plates. To prevent the cracking of the coating of clay, 
it is covered, after thorough smoothing, with a thin layer 
of cow-dung. 

The granite plates thus prepared are arranged in the fol- 
lowing manner : The upper plate is suspended over the 
lower one, the space or mould between the two being 



176 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

limited by iron bars laid on the lower stone, which is a 
little longer than the upper one, and projects to the front 
so as to form a lip or mouth piece for receiving the metal. 
The plates are bound together with iron, and raised on one 
side so that they stand at an angle of 45 . As soon as the 
casting is finished and the metal is supposed to be solidi- 
fied, the sheet of brass is carefully taken from the mould. 
With sufficient precautions such granite moulds can be 
used for a long time without the coating of clay becoming 
damaged, and the sheets turn out very uniform after the 
mould has once been heated by several castings. One and 
the same mould is frequently used continually, in order to 
keep it warm, and if it has to stand empty for some time it 
is enveloped in a bad conductor, as a coarse carpet, to pre- 
vent its cooling. If the mould is damaged it must be care- 
fully mended, and the mended places sharply dried to 
prevent cracking. 

The sheets of brass taken from the mould are subjected 
to a mechanical cleansing, and at the same time carefully 
inspected, defective sheets being remelted. 

At the present time the plate-brass obtained by casting 
is generally worked into sheet-brass, which was formerly 
prepared by hammering, but now by rolling. In some 
cases rolling is succeeded by hammering, as, for instance, 
in the case of the very thin sheet-brass known as Dutch 
metal, which is distinguished by the peculiar clear sound it 
emits on being pressed together. Thicker plates are oc- 
casionally prepared for rolling by hammering. After each 
passage through the rolls the sheets are heated in a heat- 
ing furnace, quenched to obtain greater ductility, and then 
rolled cold until reduced to the desired thickness. In 
working brass which is only ductile in the heat, the sheets 
must of course pass in a hot state through the rolls until 
reduced to the proper size. Before rolling, the sheets, and 
sometimes the rolls also, are coated with oil. After passing 
through the rolls the sheet-brass is finally subjected to a 



COPPER ALLOYS. I 77 

treatment which decides whether it is to be soft and flex- 
ible, or hard and elastic. For soft sheet the rolled sheet- 
brass is again heated and quenched, while for hard and 
elastic sheet the heating is omitted, and the sheet several 
times more rolled cold. 

The sheets are generally heated in a reverberatory fur- 
nace heated by wood or gas. Siemens has constructed 
regenerative gas reverberatory furnaces for heating. Coal, 
if used in such furnaces, yields, on account of the sulphur 
contained in the gases of the fire, a product which after 
cleansing does not show a beautiful yellow, but a red, color, 
which is due to the copper having entered into combination 
with the sulphur contained in the gases of the fire. If coal 
is to be used as fuel, either furnaces with iron or clay 
muffles washed by the flame are used, or the coal is con- 
verted into gases, which before combustion are sucked by 
means of an exhauster through milk of lime to remove 
their content of sulphurous acid. Regenerative gas firing 
is advisable, especially for large heating furnaces, since by 
directing the flame now to one side and then to the other, 
a more uniform heat can be obtained and the temperature 
more readily regulated. 

Figs. 15 and 16 show a reverberatory furnace for wood 
firing. It is furnished with a grate, a, 4 feet long and 2 
feet wide ; the fire-bridge b projects about 1 ^ feet above 
the hearth c, which is on a level with the grate ; the hearth 
is about 9 feet long and 4 feet wide. The arch behind the 
fire bridge is about 3 feet high, and the flue d opens about 
1 foot above the hearth. The sheets rest upon the rails e 
so that they are also played upon from below by the flame. 

The sheets to be heated are frequently placed upon a 
carriage running upon wheels and rails, which when the 
charge is heated is withdrawn and replaced by another 
loaded carriage. This plan has the disadvantage that 
through the intermediate space required for the movement 
of the carriage and the expansion of the bottom, much cold 
12 



1 7 8 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



air passes between the bottom of the hearth and the fur- 
nace into the heating space and cools off the furnace,. 



Fig. 15. 




whereby more time, and consequently more fuel, is required 
for heating. In some brass factories this evil has been 
overcome as follows : On both sides the entire length of 
the furnace, run, below the bottom of the hearth, hearth- 



Fig. 16. 




plates with their angles turned downward. Corresponding 
to this, angle-irons turned upward are placed with sufficient 



COPPER ALLOYS. I 79 

play on both sides of the carriage so that on the carriage 
wheels a sort of gutter is formed which is filled with fine 
sand. On pushing the carriage into the furnace the angle- 
irons of the furnace sink into the sand and thus prevent 
the access of air. This arrangement is said to decrease the 
consumption of fuel one-third. 

Cleansing or Pickling of Brass. 

The finished sheets have a black color, which is partially 
due to the formation of cupric oxide on the surface and 
partially to sulphur combinations formed, as previously 
mentioned, by heating with coal in annealing. As a rule 
brass is brought into commerce in a bright state, the only 
exception being the thicker sheets, which retain their black 
coating. In order to impart to the sheet its characteristic 
beautiful yellow color, it is subjected to a final operation 
termed pickling or dipping. This operation simply con- 
sists in treating the sheet with acid, which removes the 
layer of oxide to which the black color is due. The pick- 
ling is commenced by placing the sheets in a fluid consist- 
ing of 10 parts of water and i of sulphuric acid. The layer 
of oxide quickly dissolves in the fluid and the sheets show 
the pure yellow brass color. After this operation the sheets 
may be at once washed and dried, and brought into com- 
merce. 

In most cases the sheets are, however, subjected to a 
second treatment with acids in order to impart to them a 
beautiful color ; hence the treatment with sulphuric acid is 
generally termed preparatory pickling. As the actual 
pickle, either nitric acid by itself is used, or a mixture of 
two parts of nitric acid and one part of sulphuric acid. 
Pickles containing nitric acid possess the property of dis- 
solving zinc from the brass quicker than copper, the sur- 
face of the sheet acquiring in consequence of it a warmer 
tone, shading more or less into reddish. By exercising 
great care dilute nitric acid by itself may be used as a 



l8o THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

pickle, but the sheets must be immediately washed, since if 
only the slightest trace of the acid remains, they acquire 
after some time a greenish color due to the formation of a 
basic cupric nitrate. 

It has been observed that nitric acid containing a certain 
quantity of nitrous acid yields especially beautiful shades of 
color. To obtain them a small quantity of organic sub- 
stance is added to the nitric acid or to the mixture of nitric 
and sulphuric acids. The most curious substances are used 
for the purpose, snuff, for instance, being highly recom- 
mended as especially efficacious in producing beautiful 
colors. The use of such substances is, however, entirely 
superfluous, there being a number of cheaper organic sub- 
stances which, when brought together with concentrated 
nitric acid, evolve nitrous acid. The cheapest of these ma- 
terials is dry saw-dust, the nitric acid acquiring a short 
time after its introduction an orange-yellow color, which is 
due to the products of decomposition of the nitric acid, 
prominent among which is nitrous acid. After taking the 
sheets from the pickle they are washed, best in running 
water, in order to remove the last traces of acid. 

By quick pickling the articles are obtained bright by the 
removal of the layer of oxide from the smooth surface of 
the metal. But sometimes a dull lusterless surface is to be 
imparted to the brass, which is effected by treating the 
articles with a boiling pickling-fluid composed also of nitric 
and sulphuric acids. In many factories this pickle is pre- 
pared by dissolving I part of zinc in 3 of nitric acid and 
mixing the solution with 8 parts each of nitric and sulphuric 
acids. The solution is heated in a porcelain dish, and the 
articles to be pickled dipped in it 30 to 40 seconds. In 
dipping the brass articles large masses of red-brown vapors 
originating from the products of decomposition of the 
nitric acid are evolved which strongly attack the lungs. 
The operation should therefore be executed under a well- 
drawing chimney, or, still better, in an open space. 



COPPER ALLOYS. l8l 

The pickled articles have a gray-yellow color, and in 
order to bring out the pure yellow color are immersed for 
a few seconds in pure nitric acid. They are then drawn 
through a weak solution of soda or potash, and finally 
washed. As the bright metal loses its beautiful color on 
exposure to the air in consequence of oxidation, the arti- 
cles after drying must be coated with good varnish. 

TOMBAC. 

The term tombac is applied to copper-zinc alloys which 
on account of their small content of zinc — at the utmost 18 
per cent. — have a golden-yellow, reddish to red-brown 
color instead of the yellow brass color. Articles of such 
an alloy having the appearance of gold are said to have 
been brought, in the 17th century, to Europe from Siam, 
and the Malayan name tambaga (actually copper) was con- 
verted into tombac. According to other statements the 
word has been formed by reversing the syllables of the 
Chinese packfong or packtong (white copper), 

If such alloys consisting essentially of copper and zinc, 
have been used for castings, especially machine parts, they 
are sometimes called red brass to distinguish them from 
the more zinciferous yellow brass. 

Pure tombac, i. e., the alloy free from tin, lead and other 
bodies impairing flexibility, is distinguished by a compara- 
tively high degree of ductility at the ordinary temperature 
but, like most all other varieties of brass, cannot be worked 
at higher temperatures. It is chiefly used for the manufac- 
ture of fictitious gold articles which possess a gold-like 
color, and are generally made by " striking up " in a die 
under a press or a drop-hammer, for which purpose a very 
flexible and tenacious metal is required, as otherwise the 
articles would crack. To this class belong cheap jewelry 
and ornaments, buttons and Dutch gold leaf. The varieties 
of tombac which contain not less than 10, and not over 18 
per cent, zinc possess a color most closely resembling that 



182 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



of gold. Articles made from such alloys are generally 
thinly gilded as otherwise they soon turn black and require 
frequent cleaning. 

While tombac generally contains 84 to 85 parts of cop- 
per and 15 to 16 parts of zinc; the proportions vary con- 
siderably as may be seen from the following table. 



Parts. 



Cast-tombac, German 

English 

Tombac, German (Oker) 

" (Hegermiihl) 
Paris (red) 



Copper. Zinc. Lead. 



87.00 
86.38 
85.00 
85.30 
92.00 
for gilding, German ; 97.80 



French 
German (Liidenscheid) 

French (yellow) 

golden-yellow 



86.00 
82.30 
80.00 

89.97 
82.00 



13.00 

13.62 

15.00 

14.70 

8.00 

2.20 

14.00 

17.70 

17.00 

9.98 

17.50 



3-00 
0.05 
0.50 



The best Berlin alloys (so-called bronzes) for lamps and 
chandeliers contain, as a rule, 80 per cent, copper and 20 
per cent. zinc. For ordinary work an alloy with 33 per 
cent, zinc is used. Castings to be worked with a lathe con- 
tain 40 per cent. zinc. The so-called Lyons gold is tombac. 

The color of tombac varies from pure copper-red to 
orange-yellow, according to the content of copper, though 
a red color is by no means a criterion as regards the con- 
tent of copper, since an alloy of 49.3 parts of copper and 
50.7 of zinc is redder than one of 4 parts of copper and 1 
of zinc. The more copper the alloy contains the more fine- 
grained and ductile it generally is. 

Many small articles, as- candle-sticks, inkstands, etc., 
which are sometimes gilt, are made from a compound 
designated in commerce as bronze, which is, however, not 
bronze, but only resembles it in color. Such alloys are also 
frequently used for casting small statues, for which they are 



COPPER ALLOYS. 183 

well adapted, since they fill the moulds very uniformly. 
The composition of these alloys varies very much, though 
zinc and copper are, as a rule, the actual constituents, an 
admixture of tin occurring only occasionally. We give a 
few compositions of this (imitation) bronze: 

Parts. 

I. II. III. 

Copper 80 67 76 

Zinc 20 23 2 4 

Mannheim gold or similar. — This alloy has a beautiful 
golden-yellow color. Its composition varies considerably : 

Parts. 

I. II. 

Copper 83.7 89.8 

Zinc 9.3 9.6 

Tin 7.0 0.6 

The alloy may also be obtained by melting together 69.6 
parts of copper, 29.8 of brass, and 0.6 of finest tin. 

Mannheim gold was formerly much used in the manu- 
facture of buttons and pressed articles of a gold-like ap- 
pearance, but it has recently been superseded by alloys 
which surpass it as regards beautiful color. 

Chrysochalk {gold-copper). — This term is applied to 
several alloys resembling gold, which may consist of copper 
90.5 parts, zinc 7.9, lead 1.6, or of copper 58.68, zinc 39.42, 
lead 1.90. 

The beautiful color of this alloy soon disappears on ex- 
posure to the air, but can be preserved for some time by 
coating articles manufactured from it with a colorless lac- 
quer. Chrysochalk is generally used for ordinary gold 
imitations, as watch-chains, articles of jewelry, etc. 

Chrysorin. — This alloy, prepared by Rauscherber, con- 
sists of 100 parts of copper and 51 of zinc. Its color re- 
sembles that of 18 to 20 carat* gold, and does not tarnish 
in the air. 



184 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Pinchbeck. — The alloy known under this name was first 
manufactured in England, and is distinguished by its dark 
gold color which comes nearest to that of gold alloyed 
with copper. Pinchbeck being very ductile can be rolled 
out into very thin plates, which can be brought into any 
desired shape by stamping. The alloy does not readily 
oxidize in the air, and is, therefore, well adapted for cheap 
articles of jewelry, for which it is principally used. Pinch- 
beck answering all demands is composed of — 

Parts. 



I. II. 

Copper 88.8 93.6 

Zinc 11. 2 6.4 



Or, 



Brass 1 .0 0.7 

Copper 2.0 1.28 

Zinc — 0.7 

French oreide. — This alloy is distinguished by its beau- 
tiful color which closely resembles that of gold. In addi- 
tion to its beautiful color it is very ductile and tenacious 
so that it can readily be stamped and rolled ; it also takes 
a very fine polish. The directions for preparing this alloy 
vary very much, some from Paris factories showing the 
following compositions : 

Copper qo.o 

Zinc 10. o 

Tin — 

Iron — 



85.5 


82.75 1 


14.5 


16.40 


— 


0.55 


— 


0.30 



PM 



According to a special formula, oreide is prepared as fol- 
lows : Melt roo parts of copper and add, with constant 
stirring, 6 parts of magnesia, 3.6 of sal ammoniac, 1.8 of 
lime, and 9 of crude tartar*. Stir again thoroughly, and 
then add 17 parts of granulated zinc, and after mixing it 



COPPER ALLOYS. 185 

with the copper by vigorous stirring, keep the alloy liquid 
for one hour. Then remove the cover of froth and pour 
out the alloy. 

Talmi or talmi-gold. — Cheap articles of jewelry, chains, 
earrings, bracelets, etc., were first brought into commerce 
from Paris under the name of talmi-gold, which were dis- 
tinguished by beautiful workmanship, low price, and great 
durability. Later on, when this alloy had required con- 
siderable reputation, other alloys, or rather metals, were 
brought into commerce under the same name, which re- 
tained their beautiful gold color, however, only as long as 
the articles manufactured from them were not used. 

The finer quality of talmi-gold retains its pure gold color 
for some time, and consists actually of brass or copper or 
tombac covered with a thin plate of gold combined with 
the base by rolling. The plates thus formed are then rolled 
out by passing through rolls, whereby the coating of gold 
not only acquires considerable density, but adheres so 
firmly to the base that articles manufactured from the metal 
can be used for years without losing their beautiful appear- 
ance. 

In modern times articles of talmi-gold are brought into 
market which are simply electroplated, the coating of gold 
being in many cases so thin that by strong rubbing with a 
rough cloth the color of the base shows through. Such 
articles, of course, lose their gold-like appearance in a short 
time. 

In the following table we give the composition of a few 
alloys used in the manufacture of articles of talmi-gold ; it 
will be seen that the content of gold varies very much, the 
durability of the articles manufactured from the respective 
alloys being, of course, a corresponding one. The alloys 
I., II., and III. are genuine Paris talmi-gold; IV., V., and 
VI. are imitations which are electroplated, and VII. is an 
alloy of a faulty composition to which the gold does not 
adhere. 



1 86 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Copper 

Zinc . . 

Tin 
Iron . . 

Gold . . 



II. 



III. ! IV. 



V. 



VI. VII. 



89.88 j 9 o. 79 | o .oo {g«g {%* {g* „.„ 



9-32 



8-33 



8. 9 



5.97 I 12.44 



6.60 



12.2 



11.42 U0.97 1 15-79 
— — — 1.1 

— 0.3 



1.03 | 0.97 i 0.91 { ^°5 j 0^03 j 0^51 _ 



Tissier s metal. — This alloy is distinguished by great 
hardness and differs from the previously described com- 
pounds in containing arsenic. It has a beautiful tombac 
red color. Its composition is not always the same, the 
quantities of the component metals varying within wide 
limits. The alloy actually deserving the name is composed 
of copper 97 parts, zinc 2, arsenic 1 to 2. 

According to this composition Tissier's metal may be 
considered a brass containing r a very high percentage of 
copper and hardened by an addition of arsenic. It is some- 
times Used for axle-bearings, but can be very suitably re- 
placed by other alloys, to be mentioned further on, which 
are preferable to it on account of lacking the dangerous 
arsenic. 

Tournays metal. — This alloy is much used by the Paris 
manufacturers of bronze articles, and on account of its great 
ductility can be advantageously employed for the manufac- 
ture of cheap jewelry to be made from very thin sheet. It 
is also well adapted for the manufacture of buttons. It is 
composed of copper 82.54 parts, zinc 17.46. 

Platina, a white alloy, especially suitable for buttons, 
contains 80 parts brass and 20 copper. 

Manilla gold consists of copper and zinc, or lead. 

Dutch leaf or Dutch gold. Copper 77.75 to 84.5 per 
cent., zinc 15.5 to 22.25 P er cent. 

The alloy is pale to dark yellow according to the propor- 



COPPER ALLOYS. 187 

tions of copper and zinc used. Being very ductile it is em- 
ployed in the manufacture of Dutch leaf or Dutch gold. 

The alloy is melted in graphite crucibles and cast in iron 
moulds to semi-circular bars about 24 inches long and >^ or 
or yi inch wide. The bars are then rolled cold and each 
resulting ribbon is made into a pile about 2 feet long and 
beaten under the hammer to a ribbon about 1 >2 inches 
wide. It is then annealed and beaten into a ribbon 2~%. 
inches wide, and, after further annealing, into one 3%' to 4 
inches wide. This last ribbon is pickled in dilute sulphuric 
acid, washed, boiled bright in argol solution, washed, 
brushed and quickly dried. The ribbons are then cut up 
and 1000 to 2000 pieces made into a pile and beaten under 
the hammer. The material is then again cut up, the leaves 
are placed between parchment and reduced by beating to 
about 5^ inches square. Each leaf is then cut up into 4 
pieces, which are placed between gold beaters' skin and 
beaten by hand to about four times the size of the original 
leaf. The hammer used weighs 5^2 to 11 pounds, and the 
work is performed upon an anvil of dolomite by alternately 
beating with the right and left hand, and turning the package 
with the free hand. The package is made up of from 800 
to 1000 gold beaters' skins, between which the metal leaves 
are placed ; on top and bottom come six parchment leaves, 
and the whole is then tied up in parchment. After the 
above-mentioned hammer has been used for about one hour, 
beating is continued for about 2 hours with a hammer 
weighing from 12 to 16^2 lbs. To prevent the leaves from 
adhering to the skins in consequence of the development of 
heat, they are coated with gypsum. The leaves when taken 
from the skins are trimmed and placed in small books be- 
tween tissue paper rubbed with rouge. Each book con- 
tains 21 to 25 leaves. 

Dutch leaf is used for gilding all sorts of articles, and its 
beautiful color may be preserved for some time by applying 
a coat of thin colorless or slightly yellow lacquer. By add- 



ISO THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ing to the latter a small quantity of a pure color — aniline 
colors being well adapted for the purpose — the color of the 
leaf can be readily changed to red, green, violet, etc. 

Bronze powders. — The bronze powders used for coating 
metallic and non-metallic articles (wood, plaster of paris, 
oil-cloth, wall paper, etc.), consist of tombac-like alloys. 
For colors shading strongly into white, metallic mixtures 
with a high percentage of zinc are used, and for those ap- 
proaching more closely to a pure red, alloys with a large 
content of copper. 

The many shades of color found in commerce are, how- 
ever, not produced by the employment of different com- 
pounds, but by heating the alloys converted into an impal- 
pable powder until the desired shade is obtained by the 
formation of a thin layer of oxide upon the surface of each 
particle. In modern times bronze powders are brought 
into commerce showing beautiful green, blue, and violet 
colors, which are, however, not obtained by the formation 
of a layer of oxide, but by coloring the metallic powder 
with aniline color. The manner of preparing bronze pow- 
ders has been recently much improved by the use of suit- 
able machines for the conversion of the alloys into powder. 

In metal-leaf factories the waste resulting in rolling out 
and hammering is used for the preparation of bronze pow- 
der. According to the old method the waste was rubbed 
with a honey — or gum — solution upon a stone until a mass 
consisting of fine powder combined to a dough by the 
honey — or gum — solution was formed. This dough was 
thrown into water, and after the solution of the agglutinant 
the metallic powder was dried, and subjected to oxidation 
by mixing it with a little fat and heating it in a pan over 
an open fire until the desired shade of color was obtained. 
At the present time this laborious and time-consuming 
method has been much shortened by the use of suitable 
machines, and of alloys prepared by melting together the 
metals in suitable proportions for powders which do not 



COPPER ALLOYS. 



189 



require to be colored by oxidation. These alloys are 
beaten out into thin leaves by hammers driven by steam. 
The leaves are then converted into powder by forcing them 
through the meshes of a fine iron-wire sieve with the as- 
sistance of a scratch-brush. This rubbing through is 
effected with a simultaneous admission of oil, and the mass 
running off from the sieve is brought into a grinding 
machine of peculiar construction — a steel-plate covered 
with fine blunt-pointed needles revolving over another 
steel-plate. In this machine the mass is reduced to a very 
fine powder, mixed, however, with oil. The powder is first 
brought into water where the greater portion of the oil 
separates on the surface. The metallic mass lying on the 
bottom of the vessel is then subjected to a strong pressure, 
which removes nearly all the oil, the small quantity remain- 
ing exerting no injurious influence, but being rather bene- 
ficial, as it causes the powder to adhere with greater 
tenacity to the articles to which it is applied. 

In the following table we give the compositions of the 
alloys for some colors : — 



Color. 



Yellow .... 
Pale green 

Lemon 

Copper-red 
Orange . . . 
Pale yellow 
Crimson . . 



Parts 
Copper. 



82.33 
84.32 
84.50 
99.90 

98.93 
90.00 
98.22 



Parts 


Parts 


Zinc. 


Iron. 


16.69 
15.02 
15-30 


0.16 
0.63 
0.07 


0-73 
9.60 
0.50 


0.56 



The better qualities of English bronze powders consist 
of copper 83 parts, silver 4.5, tin 8, oil 4.5, and the poorer 
qualities, of copper 64.8 parts, silver 4.3, tin 8.7., zinc 12.9, 
and oil 3. 

The variety of bronze powder known under the name of 
"brocade," consists of coarser pieces prepared from the 



I9O THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

waste of metal-leaf factories by comminuting it by means 
of a stamping-mill, and separating the pieces of unequal 
size formed, first by passing through a sieve, and finally by 
a current of air. A certain kind of brocade, however, does 
not consist of a metallic alloy, but simply of mica rubbed 
to a fine powder. Some kinds of bronze powder, as pre- 
viously mentioned, are colored with aniline colors. This 
is effected by simply pouring a dilute solution of the aniline 
color in strong alcohol over the powder and intimately 
mixing. 

Bronze powders from alloys of copper with 5 to 10 per 
cent, aluminium and 0.04 to 0.1 per cent, bismuth are, ac- 
cording to Lehmann, prepared directly from the block of 
metal by a cutting-machine, heating and boiling the powder, 
again heating several times, rubbing, washing, drying, sift- 
ing, and polishing between rolls. As a polishing agent for 
bronze powders Rosenhaupt uses mercurous nitrate. 

Metallic powders are now directly produced electrolytic- 
ally, several methods for this process having been patented 
in France and Germany. 

WHITE BRASS. 

Alloys of copper and zinc containing less than 45 per 
cent, of copper cease, as previously mentioned, to have a 
yellow color, the latter being, according to the content of 
zinc either pure white (silver white) or a pale, but pleasing, 
yellow. The ductility decreasing considerably with the in- 
crease in the content of zinc, such ailoys cannot be used for 
rolling and wire-drawing, but they may be employed for 
castings which are to be finished by the lathe or file. Being 
quite cheap they are well adapted for casting statuettes and 
other small articles not exposed to the weather. In the air 
these alloys do not acquire the beautiful color of bronze 
known as patina, but a dirty brown-green. 

On account of their white color some of these alloys are 
used for pressed work, such as buttons, etc., but only a 
moderate pressure can be applied. 



COPPER ALLOYS. I9I 

Birmingham platinum or platinum-lead. — This alloy is 
of a pure, nearly silver-white color, which remains constant 
in the air for some time. It is, however, so brittle as 
to be only suitable for casting. Buttons are made of it 
by casting it in moulds giving sharp impressions, the letter, 
escutcheon, etc., upon the button being subsequently 
brought out more by careful pressing. The composition 
of the alloy varies according to the taste of the manufac- 
turers as shown by the following examples : 

I. II. III. 

Copper 43.0 46.5 20 

Zinc 57.0 53.5 80 

Other alloys for white buttons consist of : 

I. II. III. IV. V. 

Copper 54.0 50.0 60.0 60.0 54.5") >-d 

Zinc 43.0 45.0 33.5 30.0 45.5 \ 3 

Tin 3.0 5.0 6.5 10.0 — > w 

Sorel's alloy. — This important and valuable alloy possesses 
properties rendering it especially suitable for many pur- 
poses. It is chiefly remarkable for its considerable hard- 
ness, it being in this respect at least equal to good wrought- 
iron. Its toughness surpasses that of the best cast-iron. 
In casting it shows the valuable property of .being readily 
detached from the mould, and it can be mechanically worked 
with great ease, but it is too brittle to be rolled out into 
sheets or drawn into wire. It is much used for casting 
small statues, which after careful bronzing are brought into 
commerce under the name of cast-bronze. It may also be 
employed in the manufacture of articles exposed to the in- 
fluence of the weather, as it rusts with difficulty and finally 
becomes coated with a thin, firmly-adhering layer of oxide 
which prevents further oxidation. The following mixtures 
have nearly the same properties, though they vary very 
much as regards their composition : — 



192 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Parts. 



Copper 1 10 

Zinc 98 80 

Iron 1 10 

The iron is used in the shape of cast-iron shavings, which 
are added to the zinc. The copper is then added and the 
alloy kept for some time fluid under a cover of glowing 
coals, in order to insure an intimate combination of the 
metals without a combustion of the zinc. The alloy being 
difficult to prepare in the above manner on account of the 
combustibility of the zinc, it is recommended in preparing 
large quantities not directly to mix the metals, but to use 
brass of known composition. This is melted down under a 
cover of charcoal and slightly overheated ; the zinc is then 
added, and finally the iron. 

Bath-metal. — This alloy is used for the manufacture of 
candlesticks, tea-pots, buttons, etc., and is much liked on 
account of its beautiful yellowish-white to almost white 
color. It takes a high degree of polish, and articles manu- 
factured from it acquire in the course of time a lasting 
silver luster by simply rubbing them with a soft cloth, 
Bath-metal is composed of : 

Brass 32 parts and zinc 9 = copper 55 parts and zinc 45. 

Guettier s button metals: — 

1. Brass 372 (copper 297, zinc 93) zinc 62, tin 31. 

2. " 372 ( " 297, " 93) " 47, " 47. 
3- " 372 ( " 297, " 93) " 140, — 

These alloys possess a silver color, No. 1 being the finest 
quality, No. 2, medium, and No. 3 inferior. 

Ordinary English white metal. — Brass (copper 360, zinc 
120) 480 parts, zinc 45, tin 15. 

Fontainemoreau s bronzes. — These alloys are claimed to 
be well adapted for chill-casting, the metal being poured 
into iron moulds, whereby the alloys become more homo- 



COPPER ALLOYS. I93 

geneous, separation of the constituents being prevented by 
the rapid cooling. By the addition of copper, iron and 
lead, the highly crystalline nature of the zinc is changed. 
Examples of the composition of these so-called bronzes are 
given below : 

Parts. 

^"i. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIIL 

Zinc 90.00 91.0 92.0 Q2.0 97.0 97.0 99.0 99.5 

Copper 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 — 

Cast iron... 1.0 — — 1.0 0.5 — — 0.5 

Lead 1.0 1.0 — — — — — 

The preceding alloys are those which, strictly speaking, 
belong to the brasses, the composition of the mixtures as 
regards their principal constituents — copper and zinc — 
varying only within certain limits, and the addition of tin, 
lead, and iron being only made in order to change the 
properties of the alloys for certain purposes. Besides these 
alloys there are, however, some which find special applica- 
tion, and for that reason will be discussed separately ; the 
alloys known as white metal, etc., belonging to this group. 



In the following table, originally collated for the Com- 
mittee on Alloys of the U. S. Board,* the properties of the 
alloys of copper and zinc as described by the best authorities 
are exhibited in a concise manner : — 

* Report, Vol. II., 1881. 
13 



194 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



c3 


! 

i 


Sheet copper. 

Mean of 9 samples. 
Tombac for buttons. 
Red tombac of Vienna. 

Railway axles, porous. 
Defective bar. 
Pinchbeck. 

Bearings, Austria. 
Red tombac of Paris. 
Tombac. 

Specific gravity of ingot, 
[8.753. 
French oreide. 

Very delicate castings. 
Ornaments of Hanover. 
French oreide. 

Specific gravity of pow- 
Paris jewelry. [der,8.584. 

lombac of Oker. 


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o 
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COPPER ALLOYS, 



195 



* 
Remarks. 




Gold leaf. 

Tombac for buttons. 
Bronze powder. 
Bath metal. 

Alloy for jewelry. 

Ornaments. 

Dutch brass. 

[der, 8.367. 
Specific gravity of pow- 
Vienna gold leaf. 

Bristol metal. 

Rolled sheet brass. 
Brass of 32 copper, 12 zinc. 

Chrysorin. 
Tombac. 

Suitable for forging or 
[leaf. 

Suitable for forging. 

Bristol metal. 
Chrysorin. 
Common brass. 

Suitable for forging. 


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32.670 
32.928 

35.630 
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30.510 
23120 

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Earthy 

Finely crystalline 

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Earthy 
Finely crystalline 

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Earthy 
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Red-yellow 

Yellow 
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•a^iauiS ogpadg 


8.415 
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8.650 
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8.397 
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71.20 
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20.49 

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196 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





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strong solder for brass. 
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[der, 8.329. 
Specific gravity of pow- 
Su table for lorging. 

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German brass. 

Specific gravity of ingo'. 
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I98 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
Bo. — Bolley. Essais et Recherches Chimiques , Paris, 1869. 
Cr. — Croockewit. Erdmann s Journal, XLV. 1848, pp. 87 to 93. 
C. J.— Calvert and Johnson. Phil. Mag., 18, 1850, pp. 354 to 359; ibid., 

17, i8S9. PP- XI 4 to I2I j ibid., 16, 1858, pp. 381 to 383. 
Ma.— Matthiessen. Phil. Trans., i860, pp. 161 to 184; ibid., 1864, pp. 

167 to 200. 
ML— Mallet. Phil. Mag., Vol. 21, 1842, pp. 66 to 68. 
Ri. — Riche. Annales de Chimie, 30, 1873, pp. 351 to 410. 
U. S. B. — Report of Committee on Metallic Alloys of United States Board 

appointed to test iron, steel, etc. (Thurston's Investigations.) 
We. — Weidemann. Pogg. Annalen, 108, 1859, pp. 393 to 407. 

Prof. Robert H. Thurston, who conducted the investiga- 
tions of the United States Board, makes the following note 
on the preceding table : 

" Alloys having the name of Bolley appended are taken 
from Bolley's ' Essais et Recherches Chimiques,' which gives 
compositions and commercial names, and mentions valuable 
properties, such as are given in the columns of remarks, 
but does not give results in figures as recorded by other 
authorities. The same properties and the same names are 
accorded by Bolley to alloys of different compositions, such 
as those which in the column of remarks are said to be 
' suitable for forging.' It might be supposed that such 
properties belonged to those mixtures and not to other 
mixtures of similar composition. It seems probable, how- 
ever, that when two alloys of different mixtures of copper 
and zinc are found to have the same strength, color, frac- 
ture, and malleability, it will also be found that all alloys 
between these compositions will possess the same properties, 
and hence that instead of the particular alloys mentioned 
only being suitable for forging, all the alloys between the 
extreme compositions mentioned also possess that quality. 

" In the figures given from Mallet under the heads of 
'order of ductility,' 'order of malleability,' 'hardness,' and 
' order of fusibility,' the maximum of each of these proper- 
ties is represented by 1. 

"The figures given by Mallet for tenacity are confirmed 



COPPER ALLOYS. I99 

by experiments of the author with a few very marked ex- 
ceptions. These exceptions are chiefly the figures for cop- 
per, for zinc, and for CuZn 2 (32.85 copper, 67.15 zinc). 
The figures for CuZn 2 , as given by Mallet, can, in the 
opinion of the author, only be explained on the supposition 
that the alloy tested was not CuZn 2 (32.85 copper, 67.15 
zinc), but another containing a percentage of copper prob- 
ably as high as 55. The figure for the specific gravity 
(8.283) given by Mallet indicates this to be the case as 
does the color. The figure for ductility would indicate 
even a higher percentage of copper. The name ' watch- 
maker's brass ' in the column of remarks must be an error, 
as that alloy is a brittle, silver-white, and extremely weak 
metal. 

"The figures of Calvert and Johnson and Riche, as well 
as those of the author, give a more regular curve than can 
be constructed from the figures of Mallet. 

"The specific gravities in Riche's experiments were ob- 
tained both from the ingot and from powder. In some 
cases one, and in some cases the other, gave highest re- 
sults. In the table under the head of 'specific gravity,' 
Riche's highest average figures are given, whether these 
are from the ingot or from fine powder, as probably the 
most nearly correct. The figures by the other method, in 
each case, are given in the column of remarks. The figures 
of Riche, and Calvert and Johnson are scarcely sufficient in 
number to show definitely the law regulating specific gravity 
to composition, and the curves from their figures vary 
considerably. The figures of the author being much more 
numerous than those of earlier experimenters, a much more 
regular curve is obtained, especially in that part of the 
series which includes the yellow or useful metals. The 
irregularity in that part of the curve which includes the 
bluish-gray metals is, no doubt, due to blow-holes, as the 
specific gravities were in all cases determined from pieces of 
considerable size. If they were determined from powder. 



200 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

it is probable that a more regular set of observations could 
be obtained, and that these would show a higher figure 
than 7.143, that obtained for cast-zinc. Matthiessen's 
figure for pure zinc (7.148) agrees very closely with that 
obtained by the author for the cast-zinc, which contained 
about 1 per cent, of lead. 

" The figures for hardness given by Calvert and Johnson 
were obtained by means of an indenting tool. The figures 
are on a scale in which the figure for cast-iron is taken as 
1000. The alloys, opposite which the word "broke" ap- 
pears, were much harder than cast-iron, and the indenting 
tool broke them instead of making an indentation. The 
figures of alloys containing 17.05, 20.44, 2 5-5 2 > an d 33-94 
per cent, of zinc have nearly the same figures for hardness, 
varying only from 427.08 to 472.92. This corresponds with 
what has been stated in regard to the similarity in strength, 
color and other properties of alloys between these com- 
positions." 



CHAPTER VII. 

COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 

Bronze in General. 

The bronzes are the most celebrated of all the alloys. 
In ancient times, bronze already formed an important ma- 
terial for weapons, household utensils, and ornaments, and 
the opinion for a long time held by archaeologists that 
among the early civilized people bronze was used for these 
purposes prior to iron gave rise to the term bronze age 
being applied to an entire period. This opinion is, however, 
now considered erroneous.* 

However, the term bronze itself is not very old and seems 
to have first been introduced in the 15th or 16th century. 
The Italian author Vannuccio Biringoccio states in his 
" Pirotechnia," published in 1550, that alloys of copper and 
tin were termed bronzo, but fails to give the derivation of 
the word. From the Italian the term passed into the 
English, French, German, and other languages. Whether 
the opinion expressed by the French chemist Berthelot, 
that the alloy was originally called brondision, and that its 
name was derived from the city Brundusium (Brindisi), is 
correct, must be left undecided. 

The term bronze is frequently erroneously applied to 
mixtures of metals belonging really to the brasses, so that 
there is actually such a confusion of terms that many whose 
interest it is to have an accurate knowledge of alloys do 
not know what bronze actually is. 

In the widest sense, bronze may be designated as copper, 

*Complete refutations of this opinion are found in Dr. L. Beck's " Ge- 
schichte des Eisens," vol. 1, pp. 35, 343, 580. 

(20I ) 



202 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which by the absorption of other bodies, has become 
stronger and harder, and capable of being cast. The 
principal constituent of bronze, therefore, in all cases, is 
copper, the addition of tin only serving to modify its prop- 
erties. Tin, though a rather soft metal by itself, possesses, 
as previously mentioned, the characteristic property of im- 
parting great hardness to copper, so that genuine bronze 
takes a fine polish, and castings of it can be worked very 
clean with the file. On account of these qualities it is es- 
pecially adapted for a casting material, and its properties 
can be so changed that it will flow freely, or give a beauti- 
ful sound, or acquire the utmost degree of hardness. 

The ductility of bronze being but slight, only that con- 
taining very little tin can be converted into sheet by rolling, 
the operation succeeding satisfactorily at a red heat if the 
content of tin does not exceed 4 to 6 per cent. Bronze, as 
previously mentioned, being chiefly intended for casting, 
finds, on account of its hardness, much application in the 
machine industry for articles which cannot be made of iron 
or steel. 

Bronzes consisting of absolutely pure copper and tin 
show definite properties according to the quantity of the 
metals contained in them. However, in making a chemical 
analysis of commercial bronze, it will almost invariably be 
found to contain a small quantity of other metals. A sharp 
distinction should, however, be made as to whether these 
admixtures are accidental or intentional. Besides iron, 
manganese, nickel, lead, and zinc, very small quantities of 
phosphorus, arsenic, sulphur, or antimony, are sometimes 
found, and as a small quantity of these bodies suffices to 
considerably change the properties of the alloy, it is im- 
portant to pay some attention to their influence. Before 
entering on a discussion of these properties, it may, how- 
ever, be remarked that the difficulties many manufacturers 
find in obtaining alloys of determined qualities is due to the 
fact that they do not use as pure metals as possible by 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 203 

themselves, but melt down with them certain quantities of 
old bronze, which, as a rule, contains zinc, iron, or other 
foreign metals. 

A content of zinc acts upon the properties of bronze in 
various ways. Added to it in a very small quantity it has 
even a beneficial influence, the moulds being filled out 
sharper and the castings obtained freer from blow-holes. 
If, however, the addition of zinc be exceeded above a cer- 
tain limit, the alloy loses the characteristic properties of 
bronze, and especially the warm color, which passes into a 
more or less dull brass yellow. Besides, bronze with too 
large a content of zinc does not acquire on exposure to 
the air the beautiful green coloration termed genuine 
patina, but one shading into black. The addition of zinc 
must always be kept within very narrow limits, less than 
one-half per cent, of it contributing so essentially to the 
strength of the bronze that such an addition should be 
made in all cases where this property is especially desired. 
With an addition of up to 2 per cent, of zinc the properties 
of the alloy remain about the same, its elasticity being also 
increased to a considerable extent. With a slight increase 
of over 2 per cent, of zinc, the hardness as well as the 
tenacity of the bronze decreases to a considerable extent, 
and the brass-like character of the alloy soon becomes 
apparent. 

An admixture of lead has in all cases an injurious effect 
upon the properties of bronze. With a content of one- 
half per cent, the lead begins to liquate from the bronze, 
which makes the castings turn out unequal, and increases 
the oxidability of the alloy. A content of lead makes the 
bronze somewhat denser and more malleable, these prop- 
erties being, however, of little value, as the alloy is ex- 
clusively intended for casting. The peculiar patina of a 
velvety-black color found upon old Chinese bronzes is said 
to be the product of a content of lead ; and it is actually a 
fact that all Chinese bronzes contain a certain quantity of 
lead. 



204 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Iron affects the properties of bronze in a manner similar 
to zinc, imparting great hardness to it, and for this reason 
is frequently added to bronzes for axle-bearings and 
wherever they are to show great power of resistance. A 
content of iron has also considerable influence upon the 
color and gives a peculiar white tone to the bronze. It 
further makes it more difficult of fusion, though the cast- 
ings are faultless. 

An admixture of nickel increases the hardness of bronze 
to a considerable extent and decreases its toughness. On 
account of its costliness many declared the use of this 
metal as an addition to bronze impracticable. It must, 
however, not be forgotten that at the utmost only i to i^ 
per cent, of it are required to impart the desired qualities. 
Moreover it is not by any means the most expensive metal 
used as an addition to bronze, tungsten and titanium being 
also frequently employed for the purpose. These last- 
mentioned metals seem, however, to possess no special 
properties exerting a favorable influence upon bronze, and, 
though the alloys have been frequently mentioned and 
recommended in various periodicals, they have not gained 
a foothold in practice, which cannot be ascribed to their 
costliness, because manufacturers requiring alloys com- 
pletely answering certain purposes, are always willing to 
pay a good price for them. 

An admixture of very small quantities of arsenic, anti- 
mony, and sulphur, renders the bronze brittle, tV per cent, 
of either of these bodies sufficing for the purpose. Phos- 
phorus exerting, as is well known, an injurious influence 
upon most metals and alloys, acts differently in this respect 
as regards bronze, and, for this reason, the so-called phos- 
phor-bronze will be discussed later on. 

The physical properties of bronze are also materially af- 
fected by other conditions than the chemical composition, 
chief among which is the rapid or slow cooling off of the 
fused material,' which exerts so powerful an influence that 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 205 

the product with an equal chemical composition may ac- 
quire an entirely different appearance. According to the 
content of tin the color of bronze varies between red and 
white, and with a considerable content of tin passes into 
steel-gray. Generally speaking, tin exerts a greater influ- 
ence upon the color than zinc, the alloy with a compara- 
tively small Gontent of tin exhibiting no longer a red, but a 
white, color. 

Alloys containing 90 to 99 per cent, of copper retain a 
pure red color ; with 88 per cent, of copper it rapidly 
changes to orange-yellow, and with 85 per cent, becomes 
pure yellow. With a decrease of the content of copper to 
50 per cent, the respective alloys show a slightly yellowish- 
white color. It is a remarkable fact that alloys with a 
content of copper of between 50 and 35 per cent., are dis- 
tinguished by a pure white color, while those containing up 
to 65 per cent, of tin show a steel-gray color. With a 
still greater percentage of tin the color of the alloys again 
becomes pure white. Bronze of various compositions 
being extensively used in the construction of machinery 
and the manufacture of ordnance, many physicists have 
occupied themselves with the determination of the propor- 
tions of ductility and hardness of the various alloys. But, 
notwithstanding the many full researches, it cannot yet be 
said with absolute certainty when a bronze is hardest, 
toughest, most ductile, etc., and we have only approximate 
numbers for these proportions, which may briefly be 
summed up as follows : 

Alloys with 1 to 2 per cent, of tin show nearly the same 
ductility as pure copper ; they can be worked in the cold 
under the hammer, but crack more readily than pure cop- 
per, this cracking showing itself especially in attempting to 
stretch a plate of the alloy under the hammer. The duc- 
tility decreases rapidly with an increase in the content of 
tin; an alloy containing 5 per cent, of tin can only be 
worked with the hammer at a red heat, but soon cracks 



206 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

when it is attempted to hammer it in the cold ; alloys con- 
taining up to 15 per cent, of tin can no longer be hammered 
even in a warm state. The figures above given show that 
tin reduces the ductility of the copper. Its solidity is, 
however, considerably increased. Alloys with about 9 per 
cent, of tin show, according to most statements, the great- 
est strength of all bronzes, and in accordance with this, 
gun-metal has generally a content of tin approaching that 
limit. According to other statements alloys with about 15 
per cent, possess the greatest hardness and strength. The 
maximum for hardness and brittleness lies between a con- 
tent of 28 and 35 per cent, of tin. 

From the results of more modern researches in regard to 
the strength and hardness of bronzes, the following may be 
deduced : The hardness increases constantly until the com- 
position of the alloy has reached 72.8 parts of copper and 
27.2 of tin. With an increase in the content of tin the 
hardness decreases, it being, in a mixture of 33.33 parts of 
copper and 66.66 parts of tin, nearly exactly the same as 
that of pure copper. Above this proportion of tin the 
hardness decreases considerably, and with a compound of 
90 parts of tin and 10 of copper is but little more than that 
of tin. 

Alloys rich in copper undergo a peculiar molecular change 
by forging. By subjecting alloys containing somewhat less 
than 94 per cent, of copper to continued forging they be- 
come as hard as steel, but unfortunately acquire at the same 
time such a degree of brittleness that they can only be used 
for purposes where they are not exposed to heavy shocks. 

Though the hardening of bronzes by forging is remark- 
able, there is another phenomenon yielding still more re- 
markable results. By quickly cooling off red-hot bronze 
in cold water it almost completely loses its brittleness, and 
can then be used for many purposes, an alloy containing 
84 parts of copper and 16 of tin being most suitable for the 
purpose. Even a quite thick article acquires a certain 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 2.0J 

flexibility through its entire thickness, which it retains after 
forging. If it is desired to restore an article after temper- 
ing to its original hardness, it need only be brought to a 
red heat and slowly cooled. According to the above the 
behavior of bronze in this respect is just the reverse cf 
that of steel, the latter by quick cooling becoming very hard 
and brittle, and by slow cooling soft and malleable. The 
density and hardness of bronze decrease with quick cooling 
and increase with slow cooling, and, hence, bronze articles 
quickly cooled have a deeper sound, a fact well to be con- 
sidered by bell-founders. 

The density and hardness, as well as the power of resist- 
ance against cracking, depend on the composition of the 
alloy as much as on the manner of cooling the cast articles. 

According to practical experience the greatest strength 
is secured by endeavoring to obtain the crystals of the alloy 
as small as possible, even the material of the mould in 
which the casting is effected exerting a great influence upon 
the grain, and through this upon the strength. Articles 
must be cast at a higher temperature in iron moulds than 
in sand moulds, one of 2912 F. (1600 C.) being required 
with the use of iron moulds, while one of 2552 F. (1400 
C.) suffices with the use of sand moulds, especially for 
larger castings. 

Alloys suddenly subjected to a high pressure, as is the 
case with gun-metal, must have an especially high degree 
of density, the density being, however, not directly pro- 
portional to the composition, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing table : — 



208 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 





Composition. 




Density. 










Copper. 






Tin. 




96.2 






3-8 


8.74 


94.4 






5-6 


8.71 


92.6 






7-4 


8.68 


91.0 






9.0 


8.66 


89.3 






10.7 


8.63 


87.7 






12.3 


8.61 


86.2 






13.8 


8.60 


75-0 






25.0 


8.43 


50.0 






50.0 


8.05 



Bronze bein^ exclusively used for casting, it is important 
to say a few words in regard to the temperatures at which 
the various alloys become fluid. According to Kiinzel, to 
whose researches we are indebted for much information re- 
garding the properties of bronze, the various alloys show 
the following melting points : — 



Composition. 



Copper. 


Tin. 


95 


5 


92 


8 


90 


10 


89 


11 


86 


14 


84 


16 


80 


20 




Melting point, 
degrees C. 



1360 
1290 
1250 
1220 
1 150 
1 100 
1020 



Articles cast of bronze contract in solidifying, as is the 
case with other mixtures of metals, the degree of contrac- 
tion depending on the temperature of the alloy and its 
composition, and amounts to yio to tt of the bulk of the 
various mixtures. 

The difficulty of obtaining perfect castings is, however, 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 209 

more increased by the chemical behavior of the alloys 
towards the oxygen of the atmosphere than by contraction. 
In subjecting the bronze to fusion, the tin shows greater 
affinity for oxygen than the copper, and hence by remelting 
the bronze several times, it becomes sensibly richer in cop- 
per by a portion of the tin being lost by oxidation. To 
prevent a change in the qualities of the alloy, a larger 
quantity of tin than the finished product is to contain is 
generally added, so that the tin lost by volatilization is 
equal to the excess added, and the alloy obtained shows 
exactly the desired composition. 

Another effect of the oxygen of the atmosphere consists 
in the oxides of the constituent metals of the bronze — ■ 
stannic oxide and cuprous oxide — dissolving in the allov, 
whereby its strength and toughness are considerably de- 
creased. In the manufacture of ordnance a portion of the 
metal required is generally obtained by melting down old 
cannon. The mixture of metals thus obtained containing 
frequently large quantities of the metallic oxides in solu- 
tion, the toughness and strength of the new alloys are con- 
siderably impaired. 

The melted bronze shows another property frequently 
observed in other metals, especially in gold and silver : it 
can absorb a considerable quantity of oxygen, but allows it 
to escape in a gaseous state on cooling. If now, as is 
done in most cases, the castings are rapidly cooled off, the 
bronze becomes so thickly-fluid that the absorbed oxvgen 
cannot escape, and the resulting castings are full of in- 
numerable, though microscopically small, hollow spaces, 
which injure the density and strength of the alloy. 

The absorption of oxygen, as will be seen from the above, 
being very injurious to the qualities of the bronze, precau- 
tions have to be taken to protect the metal from the effect 
of oxygen in fusing as well as in casting. The best pre- 
ventative against the absorption of oxygen is to protect the 
alloy by a layer of glowing charcoal, and to effect a reduc- 



210 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tion of any oxides formed by vigorous stirring of the fused 
alloy with a stick of green wood. Though oxidation is 
counteracted by these means, it is not possible to remove 
by them the oxygen reaching the alloy from oxygenous 
material. Phosphorus has, however, been found an excel- 
lent agent for the deoxidation of the oxides dissolved in the 
metal, but it has to be added very carefully, since a small 
quantity of it in excess exerts great influence upon the 
properties of the alloy itself. In most cases an addition of 
tcmTo to t^oot suffices for the reduction of the oxides in 
solution. 

The tin oxidizing more readily, it is, as a rule, advisable 
to fuse the copper first, and then quickly introduce the tin. 
The heat should at the same time be increased so as to keep 
the alloy very thinly-fluid, the union of the two metals being 
accelerated by these means. The melted mass should at 
the same time be vigorously stirred with wooden rods, 
which not only accelerates the mixing but also counteracts 
the oxidation of the tin. Even with the use of all the 
above-mentioned precautions, the loss in fusing and casting 
always amounts to several per cent, of the weight of the 
metals used. Work where the loss is only one to two per 
cent, may be called excellent, as in many cases it amounts 
to ten per cent. 

The loss of metal as well as the qualities of the castings are 
also considerably affected by the construction of the melt- 
ing furnace. The more quickly the furnace can be heated to 
the temperature required for reducing the alloy to a fluid 
state the better it is for the purpose, for even with perfect 
protection against the action of oxygen, changes injurious 
to the homogeneity of the castings take place with long-con- 
tinued fusion. If a bronze be intentionally kept in a fluid 
state for a long time, a white alloy very rich in tin is formed 
in it and is clearly perceptible in the castings. The alloy 
is no longer homogeneous, but actually consists of a mix- 
ture of several alloys differing very much in density, power 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



211 



of resistance and strength, which seriously impairs the 
properties of the entire mixture. This separation or liqua- 
tion of the alloy into two or more compounds occurs 
specially in mixtures most frequently used, i. e., such as 
contain between 5 and 20 per cent, of tin; from alloys con- 
taining a lower or higher percentage of tin, homogeneous 
castings are more readily obtained. 

Most bronzes have a strong tendency towards liquation 
and it is difficult to make thick castings from them without 
this liquation becoming perceptible. It is particularly plain 
to the eye with an alloy containing about 10 per cent, of 

Fig. 17. 




tin, the reddish fracture of which, if cooling has not been 
effected very rapidly, shows white spots, so-called tin-stains, 
due to an alloy richer in tin. 

Although the liquation of bronzes has been the subject of 
numerous investigations, the opinions regarding the con- 
stitution of the bodies imbedded alongside each other in 
the solidified bronze have not yet been entirely elucidated. 

Fig. 17 shows the ground surface, 365 times magnified, 
of a copper-tin alloy with 12 per cent, tin, after etching 
with cupro-ammonium chloride and annealing, a are mixed 



212 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

crystals of copper and of a copper-tin combination. They 
form the constituent richest in copper of the structure and, 
as a rule, show a core somewhat richer in copper and a 
border somewhat richer in tin in consequence of the im- 
perfect equilibrium between the separated crystals and the 
alloy still remaining fluid, b is a constituent 1 of the struc- 
ture richer in tin which is imbedded between the crystals a, 
and with a low content of tin appears as the eutectic alloy, 
while the latter, with the above-mentioned content of tin 
is formed by the included alloy 3 which is still richer in tin. 

Since the liquation of an alloy rich in tin is promoted by 
slow cooling, the melted mass, which has a temperature of 
about 2552 F., must be cooled down as quickly as possi- 
ble to 932 F., at which point, according to experience, the 
alloy richest in tin solidifies. This is, however, connected 
with many difficulties, especially in casting large pieces, 
such as cannon and bells, for which a perfect homogeneous 
metal is an absolute necessity. 

The behavior of the solidified alloys towards the atmos- 
phere varies according to their chemical composition, i. e., 
they oxidize, on exposure to the air, in a shorter or longer 
time, acquiring thereby a color ranging from a beautiful 
green to black. This layer of oxide, which contributes 
much to the aesthetic effect produced by an article of 
bronze, is an important factor, especially to those occupied 
with casting statues, etc., and will be referred to later on. 

Melting and Casting of Bronze. 

The quantity of bronze to be prepared at one time varies 
according to the article to be cast, and may amount to a 
few ounces, or hundreds or thousands of pounds. Though 
the mode of preparing the bronze is the same in all cases, 
in the practice certain difficulties occur in casting small 
articles as well as large ones, which deserve attention. 

For casting small articles a finished alloy of the desired 
proportions of metals is generally used, it being very diffi- 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 213 

cult to hit the exact composition required in preparing 
small quantities of bronze. The fusion, in this case, is al- 
ways effected in crucibles, special care being required to 
prevent as much as possible oxidation of the tin. The 
crucibles are placed in a wind-furnace and the surface of the 
bronze is kept carefully covered with pulverized coal, 
anthracite being best for the purpose on account of its 
great density. 

Attention has already been drawn to the fact that the 
temperature of the fused metal exerts a considerable influ- 
ence upon the quality of the casting. Experience has 
shown that for small articles the bronze must not be heated 
too strongly, as otherwise the resulting casting is blown, 
and one blow-hole suffices to spoil it entirely. Articles to 
be subjected to hammering or stretching after casting must 
also not be cast too hot, in order to prevent them from 
acquiring a too coarsely crystalline structure. 

Small castings cool off rapidly, but the effect of this, es- 
pecially if not uniform, is to make portions of the mass 
considerably harder in some parts than in others, which 
renders mechanical manipulation difficult. It is therefore 
advisable to thoroughly heat the moulds before use, and to 
surround them with a bad conductor, for instance ashes, 
and also cover them with a layer of the same material after 
finishing the casting. Moulds of cast-iron or brass are 
generally used for small castings, which, in order to pro- 
tect them, are coated with a mass consisting of lamp-black 
and oil of turpentine. 

The preparation of large quantities of bronze as required 
for casting bells, cannon, or statues, is effected in reverbera- 
tory furnaces capable of holding up to 10,000 pounds of 
bronze or more. The copper is first melted, and, when 
fluid, any old bronze to be used is added. When all is con- 
verted into a uniform mass, the tin, previously heated as 
much as possible, is introduced in small portions. Immed- 
iately before the introduction of the tin, the fire must be 



214 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



increased in order to compensate for the consequent reduc- 
tion of the temperature, and to keep the metal in a thinly- 
fluid state. Figs. 18 and 19 show the arrangement of a 
reverberatory furnace especially adapted for melting not 
too large a quantity of bronze. F is the fire-box, and G 
the ash-pit. The metals to be melted are placed upon the 

Figs. 18 and 19. 




trough-shaped hearth H, while the aperture D serves for 
the introduction of the charge and for taking samples. 

The finished bronze is run off through the aperture D. 
For large articles loam moulds are almost exclusively used, 
sand moulds being but seldom employed. While, as pre- 
viously stated, it is advisable in casting small articles not to 
have the bronze too hot, for casting large objects it should 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



215 



be very hot in order to render the production of uniform 
casting's possible by keeping the mass in a fluid state for 
some time, and thus giving the gases evolved, as well as 
the oxides, a chance to rise to the surface. 



Figs. 20 and 21. 




Figs. 20 and 21 show the construction of a furnace espec- 
ially adapted for melting a large quantity of bronze, which 
is to be as uniform as possible. The furnace, shown in 
Fig. 20 in section, and in Fig. 21 in ground-plan, has a 
capacity of about 16,200 pounds of bronze. Its total length 



2l6 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

is 13 feet, and it is heated with wood. F is the fire-box 
and A the ash-pit, while the metals are melted in the space 
B, between P and G. K is the stoking-channel, which can 
be closed by the slide 6\ The aperture O serves for the in- 
troduction of the large pieces of metal, and the openings 
on the side for adding smaller pieces. G is the tap-hole 
closed during melting by a plug of clay. 

The base of the hearth in these furnaces is, as will be 
seen from the illustrations, trapeziform, though there are 
other constructions in which it is elliptical or oval, or even 
circular, the latter form being frequently used, for instance, 
in casting statuary bronze. Figs. 22 and 23 show the con- 
struction of such a furnace, 5" being the hearth, A the fire- 
box, and D the foundry-pit in which the mould is placed. 
The aperture above 5* serves for the introduction of the 
metals, and that above D, which is closed during the melt- 
ing with a plug of clay, for running 'off the fused metal. 

In a furnace of this kind up to 26,500 pounds of bronze 
can be melted for one casting. It is possible to construct 
furnaces of larger dimensions, but, on account of more uni- 
form heating, it is recommended to use in this case several 
fire-places arranged on the circumference of the melting 
hearth. 

The different kinds of bronze. — It will, of course, be 
readily understood that the composition of bronze must 
vary very much according to the purpose for which it is to 
be used. In practice a large number of alloys are dis- 
tinguished, which, according to their application, are known 
by various names. To retain this division would lead to 
the enumeration of a large number of names, and we must 
therefore restrict ourselves to those most frequently used, 
such as gun-metal, statuary bronze, speculum metal, etc. 

Before proceeding with the description of the prepara- 
tion of the alloys serving for these purposes, it will be con- 
venient to briefly refer to the bronzes of prehistoric times. 
It is well known that bronze was extensively used by the 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



217 



ancients for coins, weapons, tools and ornaments. It might 
be supposed, at first sight, from the castings of the ancients, 
that they possessed some very expeditious and simple 
means of making their enormous and numerous productions 

Figs. 22 and 23. 




in this department; but upon closer inspection this con- 
clusion appears untenable, for many analyses of their alloys 
have demonstrated the fact that their bronzes were not a 



2l8 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

constant composition of copper and tin, but contained fre- 
quently foreign metals, which cannot be considered as in- 
tentional additions, but only as accidental contaminations. 
Hence the success of a bronze of good composition was, 
no doubt, at that time, more a matter of accident than is 
possible with our present knowledge in regard to alloys, 
and the analyses of old bronzes can only give us hints 
about the behavior of the metals in the presence of sub- 
stances to be considered as contaminations, without, how- 
ever, contributing to the advancement of information in 
regard to the alloys. The researches made in modern 
times, especially as regards gun-metal, are so exhaustive in 
respect to the influence of the chemical composition of the 
alloy upon its physical qualities as to enable us to prepare 
alloys with any desired properties. 

While the older bronzes, especially those of Greek origin, 
consisted almost only of copper and tin, in the older Roman 
coins considerable quantities of lead are frequently found, 
which must be considered as an intentional addition. Zinc 
seems to have first been intentionally added to bronze in 
the beginning of the present era. The exact composition 
of bronze has only been determined in modern times with 
the assistance of chemistry, the effect produced by the dif- 
ferent elements upon the properties of the bronze, as well 
as the influence upon its physical qualities by rapid or slow 
cooling off, being now quite well understood. But that we 
have not yet arrived at a full knowledge of these properties 
is well seen from phenomena which in modern times have 
excited the interest of all technologists, it being only neces- 
sary to refer in this respect to phosphor-bronze and 
Uchatius's so-called steel-bronze. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 219 

Composition of some ancient bronzes : 

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. 

Copper 86.38 80.91 88.70 92.07 68.42 81.76 83.65 88.06 95.0 

Tin 1.94 7.55 2.58 1.04 0.94 10.90 15.99 1 1 76 4-5 

Zinc 3.36 3.08 3.71 2.65 — — — 

Lead 5.68 5.33 3.54 — 22.76 5.25 — 0.2 

Antimony.... 1.61 0.44 0.10 — 0.67 — — — — 

Iron 0.67 1.34 1.07 3.64 4.69 0.15 trace trace 0.3 

Nickel — — — — 0.78 trace 0.63 trace — 

Cobalt — — — — — 1.22 — — — 

Sulphur — 0.31 — — — — — — — 

Arsenic — — — — 1.48 — — — — 

Phosphorus . . — — — — — — 0.05 0.03 — 

Silica 0.10 0.16 0.09 0.04 — — — — — 

Loss 0.26 0.79 0.21 0.56 0.26 0.72 — 0.15 — 

Nos. i to 4 are examples from Japanese temples, according 
to Mauene; No. 5, an Egyptian figure, according to Flight, 
No. 6, from Cyprus at the time of Alexander the Great, ac- 
cording to Reyer ; No. 7, an axe from Limburg with a 
thick coat of green patina, according to Reyer ; No. 8, a 
chisel of a dark yellow color from Peschiera, according to 
Reyer; No. 9, old German chisel, according to Boussin- 
gault. 

A Japanese bronze statue of Buddha weighing 450 tons is 
composed of copper 98.06, tin 1.68, mercury 0.21, gold 0.05. 

Ordnance or Guit-Metal. 

The use of bronze for casting cannon is said to have been 
known by the Arabs as early as the commencement of the 
twelfth century ; in Germany the first bronze cannon were 
manufactured towards the end of the fourteenth century. 
Prior to that, after the invention of gunpowder, cannon of 
wrought-iron bars put together in the shape of a barrel and 
hooped with iron were used. While wrought-iron guns 
soon burst in consequence of the crystalline texture formed, 
cast-iron cannon of mottled iron are much more durable. 
Modern cannon of cast-steel are lighter, cheaper and gen- 
erally more durable than bronze. 



220 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

More money and labor have been spent on the study of 
gun-metal than on any other alloy, the governments of 
several of the larger countries having expended millions of 
dollars in experiments to find out the best alloys for the 
manufacture of ordnance. But that, notwithstanding all 
this, a final result has not yet been arrived at is best proved 
by the many different opinions, some diametrically opposed 
to each other, in regard to the value of, for instance, the 
previously mentioned steel-bronze. 

The properties demanded from a good gun-metal follow 
from the use of the cannon themselves. In firing a cannon 
an immense pressure, amounting to over 2000 atmospheres, 
is suddenly developed. To resist this pressure the material 
must possess great toughness, and cannon manufactured 
from bronze lacking this toughness burst generally with 
the trial-shots, for which especially large charges of powder 
are used. Gun-metal must further possess a high degree 
of hardness, as in firing the projectile strikes once or several 
times against the walls of the piece, it being impossible to 
give the same size mathematically accurate to the calibre of 
the piece and that of the projectile. If the bronze be not 
sufficiently hard, the interior of the piece loses after a few 
shots its cylindrical form, which is detrimental to the ac- 
curacy of the shot. Finally it must be considered that the 
gases evolved by the combustion of the powder attack the 
substance of the piece itself, and hence the composition of 
the bronze must be such that this chemical action is re- 
duced to a minimum. 

Briefly stated, good gun-metal must be very tough, 
capable of resistance, hard, and indifferent towards chemi- 
cal influences, conditions which vary much from each other 
and are difficult to combine. 

In order to obtain these properties all possible additions 
have been made to the actual bronze (consisting of tin and 
copper), and analyses of ordnance metal of different cent- 
uries and various countries plainly show the efforts made 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 221 

to arrive at a correct composition of gun-metal by certain 
admixtures. In modern times the addition of foreign 
metals, with the exception of a small quantity of zinc or, 
in special cases, of phosphorus, seems to have been aband- 
oned, the quality of the bronze being adapted to the desired 
purposes by suitable treatment in melting and casting. In 
older pieces a series of foreign metals is found, some of 
which as, for instance, nickel and cobalt, must be considered 
as accidental contaminations, since the preparation of these 
metals in a metallic form has only been known during more 
recent times. Iron, if present in a considerable quantity, 
is, no doubt, an intentional addition, and a content of bis- 
muth can be explained by the fact that in connection with 
arsenic it was formerly used as a flux in the bronze mixture. 

The content of tin in bronze which by experience gath- 
ered in the course of centuries has been found most suit- 
able for casting ordnance, varies between 9 and 1 1 parts of 
it to 89 to 91 parts of copper. This composition corre- 
sponds quite closely to that used by the Greeks and other 
nations of ancient times for their weapons. 

So many details essential for the success of the operation 
are connected with the melting and casting of alloys for the 
manufacture of pieces of ordnance, that a special volume 
would be required for a complete description of the various 
processes. We can, therefore, only give the merest out- 
line, and must refer . those especially interested to the 
treatises published on this subject. The principal requisite 
of an alloy answering all the demands of a good ordnance- 
bronze is the production of an entirely homogeneous cast- 
ing, which it is endeavored to attain by solidifying the alloy 
under conditions allowing of its uniform cooling off. The 
moulds are always placed in a vertical position, and as the 
upper portions of the casting show frequently a different 
composition from the lower, this drawback is counteracted 
by using an excess of bronze, so that the finished casting 
has a long piece on top, the so-called "dead-head" or " sul- 



222 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



lage-piece/' which is later on sawed off and remelted with 
a new charge. This dead-head contains the greater portion 
of the alloys of dissimilar composition, and also the so- 
called "waste," consisting of oxidized metal. 

Figs. 24 and 25 show a double furnace in use in the gun- 

Fig. 24. 




Fig. 25. 




foundry at Spandau, in which 16,000 lbs. of gun-metal can 
be melted at one„ time, b is an opening through which 
larger masses may be brought upon the hearth, after which 
it is bricked up ; a and c serve for the introduction of smaller 
masses of metal and for stirring ; e is the tap-hole ; d and /, 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



223 



looking holes ; g, flue. The portions indicated by k are 
constructed of refractory material. In this furnace the 
fusion of 16,000 lbs. of metal is effected in 3^ hours. 

In several French foundries a shaft-furnace after the prin- 
cipal of Herbetz's steam-injector furnace is used, but the 
furnace works without steam, only the natural draught of 



Fig. 26. 



K ir^ iMflf' 

^ 1 ! 1 ! 1 ! 1 I 1 I ' 
/. — [ — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — ] — 1 — 1 — 

I I I h I I 

I I ' I ! I ! ' 1 I J 

-I ; I ; I ; -^ ^ 



a sheet-iron chimney 82 feet high being used. The fur- 
nace shaft A (Fig. 26), \2% feet high and 2^ to 3 feet in 
diameter, contains the furnace and is supported in a frame 
by four cast-iron columes B, to which is also secured the 
movable hearth C, so that it can be raised or lowered at 
will by means of screws a, and the operator has it in his 



224 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

power to regulate, according to the quality of the coke 
used, the width of the slit b between the edges of the shaft 
and the hearth which serves for the admission of air. c, c are 
looking holes ; d, a Langen apparatus for closing the mouth 
of the shaft ; e, a pipe conducting the gas into the chimney 
D. This furnace has the following advantages over a 
crucible furnace : Omission of crucible and blast, produc- 
tion of a beautiful fine-grained bronze on account of the 
evaporation of zinc present as contamination, consump- 
tion of only about 12 per cent, coke against 40 per cent, 
with crucible furnaces, more rapid fusion, and production 
of castings of any desired size with but one tapping. 

In casting ordnance old cannon are frequently melted in, 
the practice in the opinion of many experts producing a 
favorable influence upon the homogeneousness of the re- 
sulting new material. The loss of tin by oxidation is also 
smaller, since tin once united with copper does not oxidize 
so readily as in the preparation of new alloys. But in order 
to obtain a homogeneous product great experience is re- 
quired, and after the metals are melted, samples must be 
taken and examined as to their qualities, so that if the com- 
position be not correct it can be improved by a suitable 
addition of copper or tin, or old bronze, as may be found 
necessary. A considerable time being, however, required 
for the newly added metals to form a homogeneous com- 
bination with the material already melted, great precaution 
is necessary to prevent the oxidation of the metals as much 
as possible. Strictly taken, it would be best to use gas 
only for melting bronze mixtures, since with the practice 
of this mode of firing not only the heat can be regulated at 
will, but a flame containing no free oxygen, and conse- 
quently capable of completely preventing the formation of 
waste, can be passed over the fusing mixture of metals. 

The temperature at which ordnance-bronze is cast also 
exerts considerable influence upon its physical properties, 
one of about 2822 F. appearing to be the most suitable. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 225 

Cannon cast at this temperature are distinguished by great 
homogeneousness throughout the entire mass, and besides 
there need be no fear of the separation of the so-called 
tin-spots, one of which, if located in a place especially sub- 
jected to strong pressure in firing, suffices to render the 
entire piece useless in a short time. 

Ordnance-bronze should be cooled off rapidly, this also 
decreasing the danger of the formation of tin-spots. Iron 
moulds are frequently used, but they must not be too cold, 
as otherwise the layers of bronze coming in immediate con- 
tact with the iron solidify so quickly as to prevent the 
mobility of the still fluid mass in the interior, which would 
produce an unequal tension of the molecules, in consequence 
of which the piece might burst with the first shot. In many 
ordnance-foundries sand moulds are used, there being a 
great diversity of opinion as to which method of casting 
is the most suitable. Cannon are now generally cast solid, 
and the cylindrical cavity is formed by boring out this solid 
mass. Some, however, consider it preferable to cast the 
piece over an iron mandrel, which is sometimes so arranged 
that water can circulate in it in order that the parts nearest 
to it may quickly solidify and become as hard as possible. 

Steel-bronze. — The ordnance-bronze known under this 
name is prepared in the Austrian arsenals, the method of 
melting and subsequent treatment in casting being kept 
secret. It is only known that the bronze contains 8 per 
cent, of tin, and that the casting is effected in cold iron 
moulds. The peculiarity of the process of manufacturing 
ordnance from steel-bronze (also called Uchatius-bronze, 
after its inventor) consists in the piece after being finished 
to a certain extent being subjected to a peculiar mechanical 
treatment. The calibre of the piece is made smaller than it 
is finally to be, and is then gradually enlarged to the re- 
quired diameter by steel-cylinders with conical points being 
forced through the cavity with the assistance of hydraulic 
presses. In consequence of this peculiar treatment the 

15 



226 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



cavity is, so to say, rolled or forged, the bronze acquiring 
the greatest power of resistance in those places which in 
firing are subjected to the greatest pressure. 

The following table shows the composition of ordnance- 
bronze of various times and different countries : — 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Zinc. 


Iron. 


Brass. 


United States 


90 

90.09 
90.90 
89.30 

100 

100 
88.61 
88.929 
77.18 

93-19 
71.16 
89.58 
95-20 


10 

9.9 

9.1 
10.7 

12.0 

10.7 

10.375 
3-42 
5-43 

10.15 
4.71 


0.062 
13.22 


0.419 
5.02 

27.36 


0.69 

0.110 

1-.16 

1.38 

1.40 




France (modern) 

Prussia 


— 


England 

France ( i 780) 


61.0 


Savoy (Turin, 1771) 

Russia (1819) 


6.0 


Lucerne (Switzerland) . . . 

Cochin China -j 

China 

Turkey (1464) < 


— 







Bell-Metal. 
It was known in ancient times that certain alloys which, 
by reason of their composition, have to be classed with the 
bronzes, are distinguished by a specially pure tone on being 
struck. The ancient Hebrews, Babylonians and Egyptians 
made use of small hand-bells, and cymbals, especially at 
festivals and dances. The Romans had small bells at their 
house-doors and in the baths. In the temple of Proserpina 
at Athens bells announced the hour of the sacrifice ; they 
sounded as a martial signal, and were secured to the tri- 
umphal car of the conqueror. The actual church bells were 
first introduced by Paulinus, Bishop of Nola in Campania.* 
In France bells were introduced about the middle of the 
sixth century, somewhat later in England, but in Germany 

* Hence the word campanile. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 227 

only in the nth century. The largest bells were cast in the 
middle ages, bell-founding flourishing especially from near 
the end of the 15th to the commencement of the 16th cen- 
tury. The weight of some of such large bells is as follows ; 
Ivan Weliki at Moscow, Russia cast in- 1653, 528,000 lbs.; 
this bell, as well as another weighing 316,800 lbs., at the 
same place, fell down. Two other bells at the same place 
weigh 176,000 and 156,200 lbs. respectively. A bell in 
Toulouse, France, weighs 60,500 lbs., one in the Stephan's 
tower, Vienna, 56,540 lbs., in St. Peter's church at Rome, 
41,800 lbs., at Olmiitz, 39,600 lbs., at Notre Dame, Paris, 
35,640 lbs., at Milan, 33,000 lbs., and one, at Erfurt, cast 
in 1497, 30,250 lbs. Older bells in the cathedral at Cologne 
weigh 24,200 lbs. and 13,200 lbs. respectively, while the 
new Kaiser bell weighs 59,730 lbs. ; it is 10 feet 8 inches 
high and n feet 4 inches wide. 

Bell-metal must be hard to give a sound and not to suf- 
fer a change in form when the bell is subjected to the fre- 
quently repeated action of the clapper or tongue. It must 
therefore contain more tin 'than gun-metal. But notwith- 
standing the high content of tin it should not be more 
brittle than can be helped so as not to crack under these 
effects. For this reason the addition of other metals, 
besides copper and tin is excluded ; in fact it is useless and 
in most cases injurious. Experience has shown that the 
best proportion of the two constituent metals is 20 to 23 
parts tin to jy to 80 parts copper. The quantities of inci- 
dental foreign constituents present, such as lead, iron, 
nickel, will of course be the greater, the more impurities 
are contained in the two metals used, and will therefore 
appear, as a rule, in greater abundance in old, than in new, 
bells. The content of lead amounts usually to 1 to 4 per 
cent. In some bells up to 1 per cent, of silver has been 
found, the opinion being formerly held that an addition of 
silver adds to the beauty of the sound, though from what 
has been previously said, it will be understood that such is 
not the case. 



228 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Bell-metal is brittle and cracks under the hammer, cold 
as well as heated. If it be repeatedly brought to a dark- 
red heat and quickly cooled by immersion in water, its 
brittleness is so far reduced that it can be hammered and 
stamped. The color of good bell-metal is a peculiar gray- 
white, differing materially from that of gun-metal and stat- 
uary bronze. The bell-founder judges the correct composi- 
tion of the bell-metal by the appearance of the fracture ; if 
the latter is too fine-grained the alloy is too rich in tin ; 
if too coarse-grained it contains too little tin. The fracture 
is generally fine-grained and of a gray color. This is due 
to the brittleness of the whitish mixture rich in tin which 
more and more predominates and almost exclusively forms 
the surface of the fracture. The structure is distinguished 
from that of gun-metal by the predominance of denditric 
formations. It is scarcely possible to find upon the ground 
surfaces traces of net-work, aggregates of crystals resem- 
bling fir-tree branches appearing almost always, calling to 
mind by form and fineness chilled 10 per cent, bronze, but 
of a pale-yellow color and separated by an abundance of an 
intermediary substance of a grayish or whitish color. 

Independent of the quality of the material used the tone 
of a bell depends materially on its size and form, the thick- 
ness of the walls and the proportion of height to diameter 
being also of importance for a beautiful and pure tone. 
The skill of the bell-founder lies not so much in finding the 
right composition of the alloy, this being thoroughly under- 
stood at the present time, as in giving the bell a shape cor- 
responding to a certain tone, which is of special importance 
for chimes. 

The melting and casting of bell-metal is not so difficult as 
that of ordnance-bronze, though great analogy exists be- 
tween them. The copper is first melted down, and after 
heating the fused mass as much as possible, the tin is intro- 
duced and an intimate mixture promoted by vigorous stir- 
ring. Many bell-founders do not add all the tin at once, 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 229 

but at first about two-thirds of it, and when this has formed 
a union with the copper, the other third. 

It rarely happens that only new materials are used in 
preparing the bell-metal, old bells and ordnance-bronze 
being worked in large quantities. The composition of 
these should, however, be known so that the mean of the 
alloy will be such as to yield a bell of the required quality. 
For this purpose it is best to melt small portions of the 
respective metals together in the same proportions in which 
they are to be fused on a large scale. From the quality of 
these test-pieces it will then be seen whether a change in 
the composition of the alloy is necessary. 

It is still more preferable to ascertain by a chemical 
analysis the centesimal composition of the metals, since the 
appearance of the fracture, color, and degree of brittleness 
give rise to error. 

It has been frequently observed that bells repeatedly re- 
melted acquire a disagreeable tone. The principal reason 
for this change is found in the solution of oxide in the 
alloy. This evil can be overcome by deoxidizing the mix- 
ture of metals, to which we will refer later on. While the 
composition of bell-metal for large bells is always within 
the above-mentioned limits, the material used for the man- 
ufacture of small tower-bells, table-bells, etc., varies very 
much, mixtures being often used which can actually not be 
classed as bell-metal, they being frequently only tin alloyed 
with a small quantity of copper and a little antimony. 

The following table shows the composition of some bell- 
metals : — 



230 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Normal composition ■< 

Alarm bell at Rouen 

Alarm bell at Ziegenhain . 
Alarm bell at Darmstadt.. 
Alarm bell at Reichenhall 

(13th century) 

Tam-tam 

r 

Bells of Japanese origin. -\ 
I 



Parts. 



Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


■ 
Silver. 


Iron. 


80 


20 


_ 






78 


22 


— 


— 


— 


— 


76.1 


22.3 


1.6 


— 


1.6 




71.48 


33-59 


— 


4.04 


— 


•: .12 


73-94 


21.67 


— 


1. 19 


0.17 


— 


80 


20 


— 


— 






78.51 


10.27 


— 


0.52 


0.18 


— 


10 


4 


i-5 


— 


0-5 




10 


2-5 


0.5 


1-33 


— 


— 


10 


3 


1 


2 


y 2 




10 













For small clock-bells, table-bells, sleigh-bells, etc., an 
alloy giving a clear and pure tone has to be used. Ex- 
perience has shown that bell-metal with about 22 per cent, 
of tin gives the finest tone, and can therefore be suitably 
used for small bells. However, it is an object to use as 
cheap an alloy as possible for these purposes by a reduc- 
tion of the content of the expensive copper. The following 
table will suffice to show the composition of such alloys : 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Silver. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Bis- 
muth . 


House-bells 


80 

75 
73 
74-5 
72.0 

84-5 
17 


20 

25 
24-3 
25 
26.56 

15.42 
800 

7 


2.7 


0.5 




1-44 


0.1 
1 




House-bells, smaller. 
Clock-bells, German . 
Clock-bells, Swiss . . . 
Clock-bells, Paris .... 
Sleigh-bells 


— 


White table-bells 

White table-bells 


5 



Chinese tam-tams or goiigs are distinguished by a strong, 
far-reaching sound. The alloy of which they are made con- 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 23I 

sists in the mean of 80 parts copper and 20 parts tin. 
Genuine Chinese tam-tams are made, as shown by their 
appearance, from a thicker block of metal by forging with 
the hammer. However, bell-metal of the composition 
mentioned above is quite brittle at the ordinary tempera- 
ture as well as at bright red heat, and its brittleness is but 
slightly decreased by tempering. The secret of the manu- 
facture of tam-tams is found in the previously mentioned 
property of these alloys to suddenly become malleable at a 
perfectly dark red heat, but to rapidly lose this malleability 
at higher, as well as lower, temperatures. 

Algiers metal {metal d' Alger). — This metal has a nearly 
pure white color and takes a beautiful polish. It can 
scarcely be classed with bell-metal, its composition having 
nothing in common with it. It is composed of copper 5 
parts, tin 94.5, and antimony 0.5. The antimony is very 
likely added to give greater hardness. 

Large bells are cast in loam moulds. The figures or de- 
signs with which the bell is to be ornamented are placed in 
the mould, the portions which have been left imperfect in 
casting being mended after the cast bell is cold. Small 
bells are generally cast in sand moulds, though recently 
iron moulds are frequently used. 

Silver bell-metal. — This alloy suitable for small bells is 
distinguished by a beautiful silver-clear tone, and a nearly 
white color. It is composed of: 

Parts. 

I. 

Copper 40 

Tin 60 

Bronzes for Various Purposes. 

As previously stated the properties of bronze may be 

varied within very wide limits according to the purpose for 

which it is to be used. A few of the most important 

bronzes used in the various branches of industry are here 



II. 


in. 


41-5 


41.6 


58.5 


58.4 



2$2 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

given. To enter on a detailed description of all these alloys 
is scarcely practicable, since many manufacturers preparing" 
bronzes for their special purposes use alloys which, as 
regards their centesimal composition (in respect to copper 
and tin), show considerable variations, and sometimes con- 
tain other metals as additions, which, according to the 
assertions of the manufacturers, impart to them exactly the 
properties desired. 

According to the purposes for which the bronzes are to 
be used they may be designated, besides those already 
mentioned, as machine bronze (for bearings and pieces sub- 
ject to severe friction), coin and medal bronze, and ormolu. 
The last alloy is chiefly used for small articles of art, and is 
by many classed among statuary bronze, but incorrectly so,, 
because the latter, as will be explained later on, cannot be 
termed a bronze in the actual sense of the word. Besides 
the above-mentioned varieties of bronze, there remains to 
be mentioned the speculum metal, which was formerly much 
used for mirrors of optical instruments, but at the present 
its application is limited, these mirrors being now made by 
a cheaper process and at the same time of greater power. 

Medal and coin-bronze. — A bronze suitable for these pur- 
poses must have a certain degree of ductility, be able to 
receive a true impression, and wear well. In many countries 
the baser coin is now made of a bronze-like alloy instead of 
pure copper as formerly, it being better calculated to resist 
the injuries it is likely to receive in circulation. The bronze 
used in casting medals contains a variable proportion of 
tin, ranging generally from 4 to 10 per cent., according to 
the depth of the impression. Bronzes containing about 8 
per cent, of tin are distinguished by great hardness, but 
can be rendered sufficiently soft for stamping by heating to 
a red heat and tempering. This variety of bronze is chiefly 
used for medals which, besides being distinguished by 
artistic execution, are to have considerable durability. If 
the impression is to be quite deep, or if the medals are to 
be stamped several times, they must be repeatedly annealed- 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 233 

An addition of a very small quantity of lead and zinc has 
a favorable effect upon the metal to be used for medals. 
It renders it softer, so that it can be worked with greater 
ease, and its color and fusibility are also improved. 

The baser coin of many countries (France, Switzerland, 
Belgium, Italy, etc.) consists of a bronze of varying com- 
position. The copper coin manufactured in France since 
1852 consists, for instance, of copper 95 parts, tin 4, and 
zinc 1. This alloy has stood the test of time, coins stamped 
in 1852 still showing the impression in all its details, which 
is sufficient proof of its durability. Coin-bronze as made 
by the Greeks and Romans contained from 96 parts of cop- 
per and 4 of tin, to 98 parts of copper and 2 of tin. Chaudet 
has shown that the first of these alloys can be used for fine 
work, medals of this composition taking a very perfect 
polish while sufficiently hard to wear well. 

Many medals, as is well known, do not show the color of 
bronze, but a pleasant brown, subsequently produced by 
oxidation. A bronze which, on account of its pale-red 
color, is especially adapted for medals with figures in high 
relief, consists of a mixture rich in copper. It is at the 
same time very flexible, so that the medals can be stamped 
without an expense of great power. This bronze consists 
of copper 97 parts, tin 2, and lead 1. 

Medals whose size does not exceed a certain limit are at 
present stamped from sheet rolled out to the required 
thickness, and the blanks thus obtained stamped with the 
impression, this method being also used in making coins. 
For large medals with impressions in very high relief plates 
are prepared by casting, the model of the medal being used 
in order to obtain plates already somewhat raised or de- 
pressed on the respective places. As soon as the pieces 
cast in sand are solidified, they are thrown in cold water to 
give them the required degree of softness. After subject- 
ing them to one or two pressures in the stamping-press, 
they must be again annealed in order to prevent cracking 
of the edges. 



234 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Ormolu {or moulu). — This alloy is much used for small 
statues, candlesticks, inkstands, etc., but serves also for 
purely artistic purposes. It .also finds a very interesting 
application in the manufacture of articles coated with 
enamel. The enamel is placed in shallow cavities chiseled 
in the surface of the bronze and fused by heating the latter. 
Enamel of various colors can be used, each color being 
terminated by the edges of the cavities, and the articles 
after heating appear coated with the tightly-adhering 
enamel. Such work is termed email cloisonne - . It became 
known in Europe through Chinese articles, but at present 
the European product by far surpasses the Chinese. 

Below we give the composition of a few bronzes which 
can be classed with ormolu. They are much used in the 
manufacture of small articles of art, this industry being car- 
ried on to an enormous extent in Paris and Vienna. 

Actual ormolu. — This bronze is distinguished by a pure 
golden-yellow color, and requires but little gold for gild- 
ing. It is much used for the finest bronze articles of lux- 
ury. It is composed of copper 58.3 parts, tin 16.7, zinc 25.3. 

Bronze for small castings. — For articles to be prepared 
in large quantities, it is desirable to have a bronze which 
becomes very thinly-fluid in the heat and fills out the 
moulds. Cast-iron moulds are generally used, and the 
articles, as a rule, turning out very clean, can be at once 
brought into commerce after mending imperfect parts. A 
bronze of excellent quality for this purpose is composed of 
copper 94.12 parts, tin 5.88. 

Gold bro?ize. — For many articles which are to present a 
beautiful appearance without being too expensive, it is 
scarcely practicable to provide them with a coating of gen- 
uine gold. An effort must, therefore, be made to impart 
to the alloy to be used a color resembling as closely as 
possible that of gold. A mixture possessing these proper- 
ties in a high degree is composed of copper 90.5 parts, tin 
6.5, and zinc 3.0. This alloy retains its beautiful gold color 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 235 

on exposure to the air, but loses it rapidly if exposed to 
both air and water. Articles manufactured from it, if kept 
in a room, retain their color, and in the course of time act 
like all genuine bronzes, i. e., they become covered with 
the characteristic green coating know as genuine patina, 
which is so highly valued on account of bringing out the 
beauty of the contours. 

According to Marechal and Saunier, a beautiful gold 
bronze is obtained if the tin be first purified by fusing with 
nitrate of soda, and the copper by fusing with saltpetre and 
potassium cyanide, and adding to the fused copper argol 
and potassium cyanide. The metals thus prepared are 
fused together with the addition of a mixture of sal am- 
moniac, potassium cyanide, phosphor-copper and Marseilles 
(castile) soap ; before pouring out, a small quantity of 
sodium is added to make the alloy non-oxidizable. 

Bronze to be gilded. — Every kind of bronze can be gilded, 
the gold. adhering with great tenacity. An example of this 
is furnished in the equestrian statue of the Emperor Marcus 
Aurelius, standing in front of the capitol at Rome, which 
still showtracess of the gold with which it was at one time 
entirely coated. In making castings to be subsequently 
gilded, it is advisable to use an alloy which is distinguished 
by a beautiful gold color, such alloy, as previously men- 
tioned, requiring the smallest possible quantity of gold. 
An alloy answering the purpose is composed of copper 
58.3 parts, tin 16.7, zinc 25.3. 

In many places, especially in Paris, much jewelry is made 
of bronze. The articles being generally turned out by 
stamping and finally gilded, the bronze used must have a 
certain degree of ductility and allow of being readily gilded. 
A mixture answering these demands, of which the greater 
portion of the Paris bronze jewelry is made, consists of 
copper 8 parts, tin 7. 

Bronze for ship-sheathing . — A bronze containing 4.5 to 
7 parts of tin to 100 parts of copper can be readily rolled 



236 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

to sheets at a red heat, and in rolled plates with a content 
of 4.5 to 5.5 per cent, tin, resists the action of sea-water 
much longer than pure copper. With less than 3 per cent, 
tin its durability decreases essentially. It has been sought 
to replace a small portion of the tin by zinc or lead (0.5 to 
to 1.3 per cent.), it being claimed that the zinc makes the 
bronze more uniform. French bronze-sheet contains, ac- 
cording to Pufahl, copper, 91.57 per cent.; tin, 8.17; lead, 
0.1 1 ; nickel, 0.08; and iron, 0.04. 

Machine-bronze. — In this collective term are included a 
great number of alloys with very variable properties, and 
which have actually nothing in common except that they 
are used for certain parts of machinery. Many of these 
mixtures of metals — for some of them can scarcely be called 
bronzes — must be as hard as possible in order to resist 
wear ; others must possess great strength so as not to yield 
under shocks or pressure, while still others must have the 
property of showing, even under a heavy load, but little 
frictional resistance when in contact with other metals. 

Bronzes of ordinary composition differ but little as re- 
gards their properties from other cheaper metals and mix- 
tures of metals, and, on account of their higher price, are 
but little used in the manufacture of parts of machinery, 
red brass being more frequently employed. The so- 
called white metal, which is distinguished by great hardness 
and comparative cheapness, finds however, much application 
for bearings. The white metals most frequently used in 
the manufacture of machines consist of alloys very rich in 
tin, containing besides this metal, antimony and a small 
quantity of copper. 

Machine bronze. — On account of its considerable hard- 
ness and strength which can be readily regulated, bronze is 
used in the construction of machinery as a substitute for 
iron where rust or other influences would soon corrode 
the latter, or where two parts are subjected to friction and 
the unavoidable wear caused thereby is to be confined to 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 237 

the part which can be most easily replaced, for instance, 
piston rings, bearings, etc. The most frequent application 
of bronze is for such parts which are in constant friction 
with iron parts. 

In regard to the choice of a bronze as a substitute for 
the cheaper iron, it has of course to be taken into consid- 
ation that by its suitable composition less friction is to be 
produced than with iron upon iron. The most important 
point to be observed is, however, the fact that when two 
parts of the same material rub together, they also are, to 
approximately, the same extent subjected to wear, and have 
in a shorter or longer time to be replaced. If, on the 
other hand, one part is softer than the other, this alone is 
chiefly subjected to wear and requires to be replaced. 
Hence that portion of the two parts which can be replaced 
at the least expense is generally made of bronze, and the 
composition of the latter is sought to be so regulated that 
the object of protecting the more expensive part from 
wear is attained without, however, subjecting the bronze 
itself to more rapid wear than is absolutely necessary. 

As such parts are cast, and an excessive degree of hard- 
ness would in most cases not even answer the purpose, 
larger or smaller quantities of zinc are generally added so 
that the composition of the bronze frequently corresponds 
with that of art bronzes. As with the latter a moderate 
addition of lead has sometimes been found suitable, casting 
and working with cutting tools being thereby facilitated, 
but the brittleness is, of course, increased. For machine 
parts readily subject to breaking, a large addition of lead is 
therefore injurious, and the value of antimony, which is also 
sometimes used, is questionable. 

From what has been said it follows that the com- 
position of machine bronze may vary very much and de- 
pends on the purpose for which it is to be used. Numer- 
ous formulas tested in practice have been recommended for 
the composition of machine bronze of which the following 
may serve as examples : 



2 3 8 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Tough alloy for cocks, valves, etc 

Very tough alloy for eccentric rings 

Another alloy for eccentric rings 

Dense alloy for pump-bodies and valve-boxes. 

Whistles for locomotives 

Same with somewhat duller sound 

Stuffing boxes, valve balls 

Screw nuts for large threads 

Piston rings 

Piston rings 

Distributing slide-valve 

Gears in which teeth are cut 

Gears in which teeth are cut 

Gearing for spinning frames 

Alloy for mathematical and physical appar- 
atus but slightly subject to changes in tem- 
perature 

Alloy for more delicate weights, balances and 
mathematical instruments 

Propeller blades and boxes 

Paddle-wheel pins 

Cog-wheels 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


88.0 


12.0 


3-0 





90.0 


12.0 


2.0 


— 


84.0 


14. 


2.0 


— 


88.0 


10. 


2.0 


— 


80.0 


18.0 


2.0 


— 


81.0 


17.0 


2.0 


— 


86.2 


10.2 


3-6 


— 


86.2 


11.4 


2.4 


— 


84.0 


3-0 


8-5 


4-5 


100. 


3-0 


10. 


— 


82.0 


18.0 


2.0 


— 


88.8 


8.5 


2-7 


— 


87.7 


10.5 


i-7 


— 


90.0 


10. 




~ 


82.0 


13.0 


5-0 


— 


90.0 


8.0 


2.0 


— 


57-o 


14.0 


29.0 


— 


76.8 


17.4 


5-8. 


— 


91.0 


— 


9.0 


— 



The following table shows the composition of various 
approved alloys for bearings. 



Ordinary bearings 

Tough bearings 

Bearing for French railroad cars 

Bearing for locomotive axles 

Bearing for locomotive axles * 

Stephenson's bearing for locomotive axles.. 

Bearings for very hard axles 

Bearings for moderately hard axles 

Bearing of the Penna. Railroad Co 



Copper. 



B4.5 
86.0 
82.0 
82.0 

73-5 
79.0 
82.0 
70.0 
77.0 



Parts. 



Tin. 


Zinc. 


13-3 


2.2 


14.0 


2.0 


18.0 


2.0 


10. 


8.0 


9-5 


9-5 


8.0 


5-0 


16.0 


2.0 


22.0 


8.0 


8.0 


— ■ | 



Lead. 



7-5 
8.0 



15-0 



*This alloy contains in addition to the other metals 0.5 per cent, of iron, 
and has stood the test for several years. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



239 



In the tables below the mixtures employed by a large 
engineering firm, using scrap and new metal are given. * 



Bearing brasses. . 
Eccentric pumps 

Pumps 

Cocks and glands 
Sluice cock-way . 



Parts. 



Copper. 


Spelter. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Old 

metal. 


38 


1 





7 


54 


38 


1 


— 


4 


57 


38 


4 


— 


3 


55 


38 


6 


i-5 


r.5 


53 


38 


9 


— 


— 


53 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Spelter. 


Old 

metal. 


Bearing brasses 

Eccentric pumps 

Kingston valve 


56 
28 
112 
56 
16 


8.5 
6-5 

14 

12.5 

4 


2.5 

7-5 

3-5 
8 


45 
70 

7 
40 
84 


Paddle-wheel pins 

Propeller blades and boxes . . . 



Heavy bearings 
Heavy bearings 

Main bearings 

Propeller shaft liner 



Parts. 



Ingot 


Block 


Zinc. 


Old 


copper. 


tin. 


brass. 


16 


2.5 


0-75 


_. 


16 


3 


— 


13 


16 


2 to 3 


— 


32 


56 


6 


— 


50 



Bronze for articles exposed to shocks and very great fric- 
tion. — Copper, 83 parts; tin, 15; zinc, 1.5; lead, 0.5. 

Bronze for valve-balls and other constituent parts to 



*Hiorns. 



Mixed Metals. 



24O THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which other parts are to be soldered with hard solder. — 
Copper, 87 parts; tin, 12; antimony, 1. This alloy is flex- 
ible, and of a red, granular fracture. • 

Bronze resisting the action of the air. — For this purpose 
Bath recommends a mixture of 576 parts of copper, 48 of 
brass, and 59 of tin. 

A bronze for the same purpose can, however, also be 
obtained by mixing together 26 parts of copper and 2 of tin. 

A beautiful bronze, which can be used for most purposes 
as a substitute for brass, and also as hard solder for copper, 
is obtained, according to Eisler, by mixing together 16 
parts of copper and 1 of tin. It is golden-yellow, can be 
hammered and stretched, is harder and more plastic than 
brass and copper, nearly as hard as wrought-iron, and runs 
more easily and thinner than brass. 

By remelting the quality of the bronzes is impaired, they 
becoming more thickly-fluid and their brittleness increases. 
This deterioration is due to the absorption of oxygen by 
the liquid alloy, the oxygen being chemically fixed. In ad- 
dition to cuprous oxide, stannic acid and copper stannate 
have to be taken into account. This deterioration of the 
bronzes cannot be removed by melting under a cover of 
charcoal as has been shown by exhaustive experiments. 
Charcoal, to be sure, has a reducing effect, but only when 
in direct contact with the oxides. Since the charcoal, how- 
ever, does not pass into solution with the alloy, the crystals 
of cuprous oxide, and especially the stannic acid formed, 
and present in the alloy in the shape of threads and thin 
skins, do not rise at all or at least very sluggishly, and the 
charcoal cannot produce a reducing effect or only a very 
limited one. These drawbacks can only be removed by 
refining the old material, and old copper to be rendered 
suitable for the preparation of bronze must also be refined. 
This is best effected by poling with green wood as sappy as 
possible, for instance, green birch poles. During the poling 
samples should at short intervals be taken and examined as 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 2/j.I 

to structure and toughness, the latter by hammering and 
bending tests. Poling too long continued makes the cop- 
per brittle. The slags are withdrawn from the surface of 
the metal-bath, and towards the end of the poling operation 
the melted copper is covered with charcoal. 

Old bronzes and old copper may also be sufficiently 
deoxidized by the addition of a small quantity of phosphor- 
copper. 

A few words may here be added, regarding defective 
bronze castings. Such castings can be but seldom, or not at 
all, recognized from the outside, it only becoming apparent 
in further working the casting that it is honeycombed with 
blisters and pores, and unfit for use. This is unfortunately 
found out only when the work has quite far advanced, and 
the time and labor spent is thus lost. The formation of 
blisters and pores is due to the development of gases in 
consequence of decompositions which take place in the 
liquid metal, it being, in fact, nearly always dissolved oxides 
which by acting upon other dissolved constituents, form new 
liquid oxygen combinations and, in this manner, cause 
development, of gas. The formation of oxides frequently 
takes place during melting by the absorption of oxygen from 
the air or the fire gases, the latter being especially the case 
when the time of melting is for any reason prolonged or 
melting is effected in a reverberatory furnace. By the ad- 
dition of deoxidizing agents it is sought to destroy the 
oxides present and which may be formed, and, in fact, 
bronze should not be cast without treating, for the sake of 
precaution, the contents of the crucible with such a deoxi- 
dizing agent. For this purpose small additions of phos- 
phorus in the form of phosphor-copper are very suitable, 
also small quantities of manganese-copper and magnesia- 
copper. Quite porous green moulding sand should be used, 
and the mould be provided with good vent-holes for the 
passage of the gas. 
16 



242 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Spectdum Metal. 

Alloys, composed of two-thirds copper and one-third tin, 
take a beautiful polish and can be used as mirrors. At the 
present time such alloys are only used in the construction 
of mirrors for optical instruments, especially for large 
telescopes, though they are being gradually displaced by 
glass mirrors. 

Good speculum metal should be perfectly white, without 
a tinge of yellow, having a fine-grained fracture, and be 
sound and uniform, and sufficiently tough to bear the 
grinding and polishing without danger of disintegration. 
A composition answering all purposes must contain at least 
65 to 66 per cent, of copper. The specula made by Mudge 
contained from 32 parts of copper and 16 of tin to 32 of 
copper and 14.5 of tin. A little tin is lost in fusion. It 
has been frequently attempted to increase the hardness of 
speculum metal by additions of arsenic, antimony, and 
nickel. With the exception of nickel these additions have, 
however, an injurious effect, the specula readily losing their 
high lustre, this being especially the case with a larger 
quantity of arsenic. According to Bischoff a. mirror com- 
posed of 66.3 per cent, copper, 32.1 tin and 1.6 arsenic, 
which possessed a white color and excellent lustre, after 
some time suddenly tarnished and became coated with a 
green patina. Sollitt claims that an addition of arsenic 
during fusion prevents oxidation of the tin. 

It would seem that the actual speculum-metal is a com- 
bination of the formula Cu 4 Sn, and has the following cen- 
tesimal composition : — 

Copper 66.6 

Tin 33.4 



According to David Ross the best proportions are: 
Copper 126.4, tin 58.9, i. e., atomic proportions. He adds 
the molten tin to the fused copper at the lowest safe tern- 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



243 



perature, stirring carefully, and securing a uniform alloy 
by remelting. 

The so-called tin-spots which sometimes separate when 
ordnance-bronze is incorrectly treated form an alloy similar 
in composition to speculum metal ; it has, however, not a 
pure white color, such as is found in those containing 31.5 
of tin. By increasing the content of copper, the color 
shades gradually into yellow, and with a large content of 
tin, into blue. It is risky to increase the content of tin 
too much, as besides the change in color the alloy be- 
comes brittle and cannot be further worked. The follow- 
ing table shows the composition of some alloys used for 
speculum-metal. It may, however, be remarked that the 
standard alloy is undoubtedly the best for the purpose : — 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Arsenic. 


Other metals. 


Standard alloy 


68.21 

68.5 

65-3 

65 

64.6 

80.83 

63.9 


31-79 

31.5 

30 

30.8 

31-3 

19-05 


0.7 
2.3 


2 
1.9 




Otto's 

Richardson's 

Little's 

Sollit's 


2 silver. 
4.1 nickel. 


Chinese speculum metal . 
Old Roman 


8.5 antimony. 
17.29 lead. 



Other compositions : Copper 32, brass 4, tin 16^2, arsenic 
1%. Copper 32, tin 15 to 16, arsenic 2. Copper 32, tin 
15%, nickel 2. 

According to Boedicker, the mirror of the celebrated 
Ross telescope, which has a diameter of 6 feet and weighs 
11,000 lbs., is composed of copper 70.24, tin 29.11, zinc 
0.38, iron 0.10, lead 0.01, and nickel 0.01. 

For the manufacture of concave mirrors an alloy of cop- 
per 18, tin 18, zinc 18, nickel 36, and iron 10, has been 
recommended. 



244 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

In conclusion the composition of a few recent and old 
bronze mirrors may be given : 

! » Telescope mirror at Birr Castle, Ireland, weighing 5000 
kilogrammes (11,000 lbs.): Copper 70.24 per cent., tin 
29.11 per cent., and in addition, small quantities of iron, 
nickel and zinc. 

A beautiful mirror in the Polytechnikum, Brunswick, 
Germany: Copper 65.1 per cent., tin 32.8 per cent. 

Roman metal mirror found in Mayence: Copper 63.4 
per cent., tin 19.0 per cent., lead 17.3 per cent. 

Old Egyptian metal mirror. Copper 85 per cent., tin 
14 per cent., iron 1 per cent. 

Chinese metal mirrors, probably the so-called magic 
?nirrors, * contained, besides copper, antimony and lead, 
for instance, copper 80.8 per cent., antimony 8.4 per cent., 
lead 9.7 per cent., and therefore cannot be designated as 
bronzes in the actual sense of the word. 

Phosphor-Bronze. 

In the actual sense of the word, phosphor-bronze can- 
not be considered an alloy containing a fixed quantity of 
copper, but it is rather a bronze subjected to a peculiar 
treatment with the use of certain phosphor-combinations. 

It has been previously mentioned that bronze frequently 
contains a considerable quantity of cuprous oxide in solu- 
tion, which is formed by direct oxidation of the copper 
during fusion, and that the admixture of this oxide impairs 
to a great extent the strength of the alloy. If now the 
melted bronze be treated with a substance exerting a power- 
ful reducing action, as, for instance, phosphorus, a complete 

* Figures or inscriptions cast upon the back of such mirrors appear more 
or less plainly in the light reflected from the front. Thicker places — in 
this case the figures upon the back — turn out porous in casting and being 
more firmly pressed together by the subsequent grinding and polishing, 
reflect the light differently from the thinner parts. Such mirrors can also 
be made from other copper-alloys. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 245 

reduction of the cuprous oxide takes place, the pure bronze 
acquiring thereby a surprisingly high degree of strength 
and power of resistance. If exactly the quantity of phos- 
phorus required for the complete reduction of the oxide 
has been used, no phosphorus will be found in the alloy, 
but the latter must nevertheless be called phosphor- 
bronze. Hence it will be readily seen that phosphor-bronze 
is not a special alloy, but that every kind of bronze can be 
converted into it. With the use of combinations of phos- 
phorus, phosphor-bronze is therefore deoxidized bronze. 

Phosphor-bronze has long been known to chemists, but 
its valuable qualities as a material to be used in construction 
were first made known by Montefiori-Levi and Kiinzel, who 
discovered the alloy in 1871. Besides reducing any oxides 
dissolved in the alloy, the phosphorus exerts another very 
material influence upon its properties. The ordinary bronzes 
consist of mixtures in which the copper actually forms the 
only crystallized constituent, the tin crystallizing with great 
difficulty, and the alloy in consequence of this dissimilar 
condition of the two metals is not so solid as it would be if 
both constituents were crystallized. The presence of phos- 
phorus is useful in giving the tin a crystalline character, 
which enables it to alloy itself more completely and firmly 
with the copper, the result being a more homogeneous 
mixture. 

If so large a content of phosphorus be added that it can 
be identified in the finished phosphor-bronze, the latter 
must be considered as an alloy of crystallized phosphor-tin 
with copper. By increasing the content of phosphorus still 
more, a portion of the copper also combines with the phos- 
phorus, and the bronze then contains, besides copper and 
tin, combinations of crystallized copper phosphide with 
phosphide of tin. The strength and toughness of the 
bronze do not suffer by a greater addition of phosphorus, 
but its hardness is considerably increased, so that many 
phosphor-bronzes are equal in this respect to the best steel, 
and some even surpass it in general properties. 



246 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Perhaps about the best method of making phosphor- 
bronze is to line the crucible with a mixture of 18 parts 
bone ash, 14 parts sand and 4 parts charcoal ; the whole 
ground up with gum water and the inner surface of the 
crucible spread with it. Granulated copper is then intro- 
duced, covered with a layer of the mixture and subjected 
to fusion. 

At a temperature sufficient to melt the copper, the silica 
decomposes the bone ash [Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 ], the base of which 
(calcium) is removed, thus liberating the phosphorus which 
reacts on the cuprous oxide in the fused copper, deoxi- 
dizing and purifying it. The products of the reaction rise 
to the surface and form a slag which can be tapped off. 

Another, and perhaps the most general, method of mak- 
ing phosphor-bronze is the addition of phosphor-copper or 
of phosphor-tin, both of these phosphor-metals being 
sometimes used at the same time. They must be especially 
prepared, the best processes being briefly as follows : — 

Phosphor-copper is prepared by heating a mixture of 4 
'parts of super-phosphate of lime, 2 parts of granulated cop- 
per, and 1 part of fine-pulverized coal in a crucible at not 
too high a temperature. The melted phosphor-copper, 
which contains 14 per cent, of phosphorus, separates on the 
bottom of the crucible. 

According to another method phosphor-copper is pre- 
pared by adding phosphorus to copper-sulphide solution 
and boiling, adding sulphur as the sulphide is precipitated. 
The precipitate is carefully dried, melted, and cast into 
ingots. When of good quality and in proper condition, it 
is quite black. 

Phosphor-tin is prepared as follows : Place a bar of zinc 
in an aqueous solution of chloride of tin, collect the sponge- 
like tin separated and bring it moist into a crucible, upon 
the bottom of which sticks of phosphorus have been placed. 
Press the tin tightly into the crucible and expose it to a 
gentle heat. Continue the heating until flames of burning 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 247 

phosphorus are no longer observed on the crucible. After 
the operation is finished, a coarsely crystalline mass of a 
tin-white color, consisting of pure phosphor-tin, is found 
upon the bottom of the crucible. 

Phosphor-tin may also be made by heating 3 parts of 
anhydrous phosphoric acid with 1 part carbon and 6 parts 
tin. The resulting alloy has a silver-white crystalline ap- 
pearance, and dissolves in hydrochloric acid with the evolu- 
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen. According to Pelletier, 
this alloy appears to possess the composition of Sn 3 P 2 ; it 
melts at 698 F. 

Phosphor-bronze is prepared by melting the alloy to be 
converted into it in the usual manner, and adding small 
pieces of phosphor-copper or phosphor- tin. For 220 lbs. 
of bronze 21 to 24 ozs. of phosphor-copper with 15 per 
cent, phosphorus are used. 

Whiting prepares phosphor-bronze wire by immersing the 
alloy in a solution of 0.125 to 5 per cent, phosphorus in 
ether, carbon disulphide or olive oil, 5 to 10 per cent, 
sulphuric acid and 85 to 95 per cent, water, and drawing 
into wire. 

The properties of correctly prepared phosphor-bronze are 
as follows : Its melting point is nearly the same as that of 
ordinary bronze. In cooling it shows, however, the phe- 
nomenon! of passing directly from the liquid into the solid 
state without first becoming thickly-fluid. In a melted state 
it retains a perfectly bright surface, while that of ordinary 
bronze is always covered with a thin film of oxide. 

If phosphor-bronze be subjected to continued melting no 
loss of tin takes place, but the content of phosphorus de- 
creases slightly. 

The chief properties of phosphor-bronze are its extraor- 
dinary toughness and strength. In a cold state it can be 
rolled, stretched and hammered. 

According to Kirkaldy phosphor-bronze produced the 
following results by physical tests : — 



248 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Elastic Limits. 

Pounds per 

Square Inch. 

Cast 23.800 

Cast 24.700 

Cast 16.100 



Tensile Strength. 




Pounds per 


Elongation 


Square Inch. 


Per Cent. 


52.625 


8.40 


46.100 


1.50 


44.448 


33-40 



Drawn Metal {Phosphor Bronze) . 



Tensile Strength. 


Twists in 5 Inches. 




Wire as Drawn. 
Pounds per 
Square Inch. 


Annealed. 
Pounds per 
Square Inch. 


Wire as 
Drawn. 


Annealed. 


Elongation. 
Per cent. 


102,759 
120,957 
120,950 
I39J4I 
159,515 
i5i,H9 


49,350 
47,787 
53,38i 
54,in 
58,853 
64,569 


6.7 
22.3 
13.0 

17-3 
13-3 
15-8 


89 

52 

124 

53 
66 
60 


37-5 
34-i 
42.4 
44.9 
46.6 
42.8 



Besides, as a bearing metal phosphor-bronze is useful for 
a large number of purposes, such as pump-cylinders, hy- 
draulic presses, piston rings, eccentric rings, etc.; also for 
propeller blades, bells, wire, screws, gunpowder machinery, 
tools, etc. Blast furnaces are sometimes provided with 
phosphor-bronze tuyeres, which are said to give most satis- 
factory results. 

The content of phosphorus varies according to the pur- 
pose for which the bronze is to be used, an alloy with 8 to 
9 per cent, tin containing, as a rule, not over a few tenths 
per cent. Pufahl found in a bronze of 91 per cent, copper 
and 8.5 tin not over 0.1 per cent, phosphorus, the remainder 
being nickel, lead and iron. According to Priwoznick the 
content of phosphorus ranges from 0.17 to 0.76 per cent, 
but, according to Kiinkel. it may rise to 2^2 per cent., ac- 
cording to the purpose for which the bronze is intended. 
Ledebur found in a phosphor-bronze with 0.004 P er cent, 
phosphorus 0.038 per cent, oxygen. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 249 

According to Thurston five sorts of phosphor-bronze are 
considered to answer all requirements. 

0. Ordinary phosphor-bronze of 2 per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 

1. Good phosphor-bronze oi 2% per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 
These two numbers are in all cases superior to ordinary 
bronze and steel. 

2. Superior phosphor-bronze of 3 per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 

3. Extra phosphor-bronze of 3^ per cent, of phos- 

phorus. » 

4. Maximum phosphor-bronze of 4 per cent, of phos- 

phorus. 

These three, according to Delalot, are superior to any 
other bronzes. Above No. 4 phosphor-bronze is useless, 
below No. o it is inferior to common bronze and steel. Nos. 
3 and 4 are comparatively unoxidizable. 

In the following a few analyses of different kinds of 
phosphor-bronzes are given : 

Copper 90.34 90.86 94.71 

Tin 8.90 8.56 4.39 

Phosphorus 0.76 • 0.196 0.053 

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VIL. VIII. 

Copper 85.55 — — 77-^5 72.50 73-50 74.50 83.50 

Tin 9.85 4to 15 4to 15 11.00 8.00 6.00 11.00 8.00 

Zinc 3.77 — 8to20 7.65 17.00 19.00 11.00 3.00 

Lead 0.62 4toi5 4toi5 — — — — — 

Iron trace — — — — — — — 

Phosphorus 0.05 0.5 to 3 0.25 to 2 — — — — — 

No. I. for axle bearings; Nos. II. and III. for softer and 
harder axle bearings; Nos. IV. to VIII. for railroad pur- 
poses, viz. : No. IV. for distributing slide valves for loco- 
motives ; Nos. V. and VI. for axle bearings for cars ; No. 
VII. for connecting rods; No. VIII. for piston rods for 
hydraulic presses. The alloys IV. to VIII. are richer in 
zinc than ordinary bronze, and hence more homogeneous. 



250 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

On account of its toughness, density, elasticity and 
strength, phosphor-bronze may in many cases serve as a 
substitute for wrought iron and steel, especially in the con- 
struction of articles of complicated form, which require 
much labor, as well as in the manufacture of wire, for in- 
stance, for non-rusting mine ropes and telegraph wire. It 
is also suitable for ship-sheathing, for torpedoes instead 
of welded steel, for cartridge shells, etc. According to 
Pufahl, Hoper's phosphor-bronze wire is composed of cop- 
per, 95.59 per cent. ; tin, 3.60 ; lead, 0.50; iron, 0.07; nickel, 
0.24; and phosphorus, 0.37; an alloy from Iserlohn was 
found to contain copper, 92.12; tin, 4; zinc, 3.69; lead, a 
trace; iron, 0.05 ; nickel, 0.16; and phosphorus, 0.06. The 
absolute strength of Hoper's cable rope is 212,500 lbs. per 
square inch, and sheet, for instance for flap valves, is said to 
surpass even caoutchouc as regards elasticity. 

Bender, Stockman and Stolzel give the following analyses 
of Hoper's phosphor-bronze : 

Copper 90.34 90.86 94.70 93.68 94.11 

Tin 8.90 8.56 4.39 5.83 5.15 

Zinc — — — 0.34 0.28 

Phosphorus 0.76 0.196 0.053 0.17 0.21 

No. II. is especially suitable for blast-furnace tuyeres; 
and No. Ill for bearings. 

Phosphor-lead bronzes have also been prepared, Lavroff's 
bronze containing copper 70 to 90 per cent., tin 4 to 13, 
lead 5.5 to 16, and phosphorus 0.5 to 1. Kiihne's phos- 
phor-lead bronze contains, according to Pufahl, copper 
78.01 per cent., tin 10.63, ' ea d iO-45» iron 0.09, nickel 0.26, 
and phosphorus 0.57. 

Phosphor-aluminium b7 r onze.—T\\os. Shaw, of Newark, 
N. J.,* patents a phosphor-aluminium bronze, making the 
following claims : First, an alloy of copper, aluminium and 
phosphorus, containing 0.33 to 5 per cent, of aluminium, 

*U. S. patent 303,236, Aug., 1884. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 25 I 

0.05 to i per cent, of phosphorus, and the remainder cop- 
per. Second, its manufacture by melting a bath of copper, 
adding to it aluminium in the proportions stated, the bath 
being covered with a layer of palm oil to prevent ozidation, 
and then adding a small proportion of aluminium. 

Silicon Bronze. 

Copper and silicon, with or without tin, may be alloyed 
to form silicon bronze. Weiller's alloy is made by the in- 
troduction of sodium to reduce silica in the crucible. The 
inventor recommends the following proportions : Fluo- 
silicate of potash 450 parts by weight, glass in powder 600, 
chloride of sodium 250, carbonate of soda 75, carbonate of 
lime 60, and dried chloride of calcium 500. The mixture 
of these substances is heated in a plumbago retort to a 
temperature a little below the point when they begin to 
react on one another, and it is then placed in a copper or 
bronze bath, when the combination of silicon takes place. 

Silicon acts upon copper in almost exactly the same 
manner that phosphorus does, except that it appears to be 
a more natural alloy, and a flux or reducing agent to the 
cuprous oxide that is produced when copper is in a melted 
condition, and it is thereby more active in clarifying, refin- 
ing, hardening, and strengthening copper and its alloys. 
In this respect it is more vigorous and pronounced than 
phosphorus. 

Silicon bronze possesses great strength and tenacity, 
high electric conductivity and resistance to corrosion. It 
is well adapted for telegraph and telephone wires. Early 
specimens of silicon-bronze wire for telegraph purposes had 
a conductivity of 97 per cent., and a tensile strength of 
about 28^2 tons to the square inch; that for telephone 
purposes had a conductivity of 32 per cent, and a tensile 
strength of 47 K tons to the square inch. 

Later on a new type of telegraph wire was developed; 
which possessed less conductivity than the former, but had 



252 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

considerably greater tensile strength which allowed of the 
wire being more tightly stretched so that the poles could 
be placed at a greater distance apart. This wire has a con- 
ductivity of 80 per cent., and a tensile strength from 35 to 
37 tons to the square inch. At the same time the character 
of the telephone wire was also changed, raising its conduc- 
tivity to 42 per cent., and its tensile strength to 52 tons. 
These wires have been largely used for telephone lines at 
Prague, Trieste, Lemberg, and other European cities. The 
line at Trieste, in particular, has stood the test of violent 
storms completely, which is due to the small diameter of 
the conductor. A similar experience has been had at 
Rheims, where, in one case, a line having a span of more 
than a thousand feet was exposed to the action of the wind 
blowing directly across it. 

Its power of resisting snow has been equally well estab- 
lished. Thus, on an Austrian railway the engineer at the 
head of the telegraph department personally examined the 
wires during a violent storm of damp snow, followed by a 
sharp frost, at a point where the line crosses hilly ground 
at a height of about 2,000 feet above the sea. The wires 
were well covered with snow and sagged considerably more 
than usual. In several instances by shaking the wire the 
snow was detached, when the conductors immediately 
assumed their normal deflections after the snow had melted. 
The Austrian railway company above mentioned has 
numerous lines on which the distance between posts varies 
from 328 to 720 feet across flat country; in hilly districts 
the distant ranges from 160 to 500 feet. 

The " Italian General Telephone Co." has employed 
silicon-bronze wires with spans as great as one thousand 
feet. In Vienna telephone posts are frequently placed at 
the same distance apart, and carry as many as 78 wires. 

Silicon-bronze telegraph wire (I) and silicon-bronze tele- 
phone wire (II) of Weiller's patent silicon-bronze contain, 
according to Hampe : 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 253 

I. II. 

Copper 99-94 97-12 

Tin 0.03 1. 14 

Iron trace trace 

Zinc — 1.62 

Silicon . 0.02 0.05 

The following compositions of silicon-bronze may be 
recommended : 

I. II. 

Copper 97.12 97.37 

Tin 1. 14 1.32 

Zinc 1. 10 1.27 

Silicon 0.05 0.07 

Strength of the above alloys, 600 lbs. per 0.001 square 
inch, extension 46 per cent., contraction 86 per cent. Cast 
pins 3 inches thick could be readily reduced by rolling to 1 
inch thick. 

Bronze for telephone lines. — E. Van der Ven* has instituted 
a careful investigation on wires of phosphor-bronze and 
silicon-bronze. The wires experimented with contained, 
according to chemical analysis made for him by M. Van 
Eyndhoven, in the case of the phosphor-bronze : Copper 
95.5 per cent., phosphorus 2.6 per cent., with small quanti- 
ties of tin, manganese, and silicic acid ; in the silicon 
bronze: Copper 92.2 per cent., silicon 0.91 per cent., 
together with small quantities of tin, manganese and anti- 
mony. 

The practical results of Dr. Van der Ven's researches are 
that phosphor-bronze has about 30 per cent, of the con- 
ducting power of copper, silicon-bronze about 70, while 
steel as used in wires has only about 10.5 per cent. Com- 
paring their tenacity, as also very carefully determined by 
him, with that of steel, he finds that a wire of the latter 
material, of 2 millimeters diameter, with quadruple security 
and the conventional sag of 0.7 millimeter, can have a 

*Musee Teyler, and Electrotech. Zeitsch., 1883. 



254 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

stretch from pole to pole of 130 meters, while the stretch, 
under the same conditions of a wire 1 millimeter in diameter 
would for phosphor-bronze be 106 meters for silicon-bronze 
91 meters. These alloys, with a diameter of 1.18, and of 
0.77 millimeters respectively, have the same electrical 
resistance as the steel wire of 2 millimeters resistance.. 
The relatively short stretch which in general increases the 
expense of construction and maintenance, is less costly in 
cities, where at short distances the roofs of buildings offer 
points of suspension for telephone wires. It is thus self- 
evident that the bronze wires are preferable to those of 
steel, whose resistance demands a much larger section; the 
more, since the net-work of lines suspended in the air can- 
not be counted among the ornaments of a large city. To 
this result may be added the statements made by M. Bede, 
at the Paris Electrical Congress, concerning the practica- 
bility of the use of phosphor-bronze wire. A phosphor- 
bronze wire of 0.8 millimeter (costing, too, the same as 
steel of 0.2 mm.) would, on account of its high elasticity, 
coil up, before it has fallen 4 meters from its original posi- 
tion, so rapidly that on breaking it would ordinarily not 
strike the ground, and hence would be less dangerous. On 
account of non-oxidation there is no loss of diameter. 

Manganese bronze. — By the addition of manganese to the 
melted bronze, the same effect may be produced as by a 
limited quantity of phosphorus, the dissolved oxides being 
decomposed and manganous oxide separated. 

In 1840, Gersdorff prepared cupro-manganese with man- 
ganese 1 part and copper 4 parts, and shortly afterwards 
Schrotter prepared it with 10 to 19 per cent, manganese by 
reducing a mixture of copper scales, pyrolusite and coal. 
In 1876, Parson obtained ferriferous cupro-manganese by 
melting ferro-manganese in a crucible and adding copper 
and, in 1878, Biermann produced cupro-manganese free from 
iron which contained 74.50 per cent, copper, 25 per cent, 
manganese, and 0.50 per cent, carbon. By its content of 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 255 

manganese the alloy exerts, in a manner similar to that of 
phosphorus and silicon, a reducing effect upon the oxides 
absorbed by melting bronze, etc., mariganous oxide being 
formed and separated, so that with a moderate addition (3 
to 6 per cent, of the weight of the charge) only small quan- 
tities of manganese remain in the alloy, the strength of the 
latter being thereby increased. For reducing purposes a 
quantity of manganese about four times as large as the 
cheaper phosphorus is required. By a larger addition 
of manganese, so that more of it remains in the alloy, hard- 
ness and strength are increased, but brittleness less rapidly 
than by phosphorus. 

Cupro-manganese may be prepared as follows : Bring 
into a graphite crucible of about 35 to 60 lbs. capacity a 
mixture of powdered manganese ore, coal dust and granu- 
lated copper, give a cover of fluor-spar, common salt and 
charcoal dust, expose the crucible to a white heat for 
several hours, and pour out the liquid alloy ; the result will 
be a hard, tough, strong, whitish-gray product. By reason 
of incomplete reduction up to 10 per cent, of manganese is 
scorified, and the furnace as well as the crucible is strongly 
attacked. 

To partly overcome these drawbacks, Allen melts in a 
reverberatory furnace with regenerative firing a mixture of 
cupric oxide, coal and manganic oxide, the latter obtained 
from the manganiferous liquid resulting as a by-product in 
the manufacture of chlorine, or prepared from manganous 
carbonate, the result being a malleable, ductile alloy con- 
taining 5 to 30 per cent, manganese, which is claimed to 
possess greater toughness than copper. 

Valenciennes reduces pyrolusite in a magnesia crucible 
lined with pyrolusite, and melts the resulting metallic man- 
ganese with copper to alloys containing 3 to 8 per cent, 
manganese. Such alloys are soft and ductile, while with 12 
to 15 per cent, manganese they acquire a gray color, are 
hard and brittle, and more readily fusible. By an addition 



256 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of zinc, alloys resembling German silver are obtained, which 
are ductile, cold as well as hot, while German silver has 
always to be worked hot. 

Parkes heats yi to 100 parts by weight of manganese ore 
with 50 parts of cuprous oxide and 75 parts anthracite in a 
covered crucible to a red heat six to ten hours. After 
cooling a friable mass is obtained, in which the alloy is 
found in small globules. The latter are separated by sift- 
ing, and washed. 

With a smaller quantity of manganese, for instance, 4 
per cent., cupro-manganese has a copper-red color, with a 
larger content (10 to 15 per cent.) a yellowish-gray color, 
and with a still larger content, for instance, up to 30 per 
cent., a gray color. According to Weiller, an alloy with 8 
per cent, manganese can be readily rolled, but with 12 to 
15 per cent, becomes very brittle. An alloy of copper 75 
and manganese 25 resists corrosion better than copper. Ac- 
cording to Pufahl, two varieties of cupro-manganese con- 
tained : 



Copper. 


Manganese. 


Iron. 


Nickel. 


Lead. 


Silicoi 


68.39 


29.24 


1.29 


0.19 


0.06 


0.07 


56.29 


40.86 


1-50 


0.10 


trace 


1.08 



Cupro-manganese, generally with 10 to 30 per cent, 
manganese, serves as an addition to copper or metallic 
alloys to impart to them, by the withdrawal of oxygen, 
greater density and strength, and, with a larger content of 
manganese, greater hardness. If in the oxidation of the 
manganese trimanganic tetroxide is formed, 1 part oxygen 
requires 2.585 parts manganese, but only 0.646 parts phos- 
phorus. 

For the preparation of manganese-bronze, add to ordin- 
ary bronze melted in a crucible under a cover of charcoal to 
which potash or soda may be added, small pieces of cupro- 
manganese previously warmed, heat, stir several times with 
a rod of retort-graphite, or of burnt wood, and pour out 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 257 

the alloy; or first melt the copper and old metal together 
with the cupro-manganese in a crucible under a cover of 
charcoal dust, then add the required tin, and stir thoroughly 
with the graphite rod. 

The quantity of cupro-manganese to be added depends 
on its content of manganese, but if the object is only the 
withdrawal of oxygen 3 to 4 per cent, suffices. In this 
case only small quantities of manganese remain in the alloy. 
However, an excess of a content of manganese impairs the 
qualities of the alloy less than one of phosphorus, it rather 
acting similarly to tin, i. e., increases the hardness and 
strength, but the brittleness less rapidly than phosphorus. 
Manganese-bronzes in the actual meaning of the word have 
been made from manganese and copper, or manganese, 
copper and tin, or manganese, copper, tin, and zinc with a 
content of up to 10 per cent, of manganese. Such alloys 
are intended for various purposes, especially for the manu- 
facture of machine parts, as a substitute for ordinary bronze 
free from manganese. However they have found but a 
limited application, and by no means that of phosphor- 
bronze. The reason for this may be found in the fact that if 
the object is simply the withdrawal of oxygen, four times 
more manganese is required than phosphorus and thus the 
process, notwithstanding the lower price of manganese, 
becomes more expensive. Furthermore, manganese does 
not effect the strength of the alloy in the same degree as tin 
and while a content of the latter decreases the melting 
point of the alloy, one of manganese increases it and hence 
bronze containing tin can be more easily cast than man- 
ganese bronze. 

According to Cowles, an addition of up to 5 per cent, 
aluminium increases the strength and elasticity of manga- 
nese bronze, makes it more easy to cast, and gives it a 
silver-white appearance. An alloy of manganese 18, copper 
67.5, aluminium 1.2, silicon 5 and zinc 13 is said to be 
superior to German silver for the manufacture of rheostats, 
17 



258 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and its electrical resistance is claimed to be 41 times greater 
than that of copper. By remelting, even under a cover of 
coal, manganese is oxidized. 

Tough, malleable manganese bronze of almost a brass- 
yellow color contained, according to Gintl, copper 75 to 
76, manganese 16 to 17, zinc 5 to 6; or copper 15, manga- 
nese 4, zinc 1. 

The statements regarding the properties of manganese- 
bronze vary considerably. It is interesting to find in this 
connection that, about the year 1868, Messrs. Montefiore- 
Levi and Kiinzel made a number of experiments with cop- 
per and manganese alloys, and from their results concluded 
such alloys to be useless. They obtained great tensile 
strength and toughness with some of the compositions, 
but their ready oxidation at high temperatures made the 
qualities of the castings uncertain and impracticable. 

More recent experiments are, however, more favorable. 
According to Biermann, the most advisable addition to 
bronze is ^3 per cent, manganese = 2^3 per cent, cupro- 
manganese with 25 per cent, manganese; in many cases an 
addition of 0.5 to 2 per cent, cupro-manganese suffices, the 
alloys then containing only a few hundredths per cent, of 
manganese. While good qualities of ordinary bronze broke 
under a pressure of 39.6 lbs. per square millimeter, bronze 
with 2 /i per cent, manganese stood a pressure of 62.15 lbs. 
with an elongation of 20^ per cent. On account of its 
great homogeneity such manganese bronze possesses great 
resisting power against wear by friction ; bearings of bronze 
with ^2 to Yi per cent, manganese being much more 
durable than other bearing metals without manganese. 
An alloy of copper 80, cupro-manganese 7 to 9, tin 6, and 
zinc 5 has proved especially suitable for bearing metal. 

Art Bronzes. 

This term is applied to bronzes which serve for objects 
of art, such as statuary, vases and various ornaments. Such 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 259 

bronze should be capable of being cast, and of being readily 
worked with chasing tools and gravers. It should resist 
the influence of the weather and at the same time, by reason 
of its hardness resist mechanical wean It should have a 
beautiful color which, to be sure, soon changes under at- 
mospheric influences, i. <?., becomes darker and partially 
passes into green, but notwithstanding this change is pleas- 
ing to the eye, and never acquires an unsightly appearance 
like, for instance, that of rusted iron or oxidized zinc. 

For casting statues the actual bronze may be advantage- 
ously used, and many antique statues are composed of this 
material. But in modern times a mixture of metals is 
used, which besides copper and tin — the constituents of 
actual bronze — contains a quantity of zinc, the alloy thus 
formed being actually an intermediary between genuine 
bronze and brass. The reason for the use of such mixtures 
must partially be sought in their cheapness as compared 
with genuine bronze, and partially in the purpose for which 
the metal is to be used. A statuary bronze which thor- 
oughly answers the purpose must become thinly fluid in 
fusing, fill the moulds out sharply, allow of being readily 
worked with the file, and must acquire a beautiful green 
color — the patina — on exposure to the air for a short time. 

But the actual bronze, even if highly heated, does not be- 
come sufficiently fluid to accurately fill out the moulds, and 
has the further disadvantage of yielding homogeneous cast- 
ings with difficulty. Brass by itself is also too thickly- 
fluid, and lacks the requisite hardness to allow the fine 
mending of those parts which have been left imperfect in 
casting. 

Alloys containing zinc and tin, besides copper, can, how- 
ever, be so prepared that they become very thinly-fluid, and 
yield fine castings which can be readily worked with the file 
and chisel. The most suitable proportions seem to be a 
content of zinc of from 10 to 18 per cent, and one of tin of 
from 2 to 4 per cent. In regard to hardness, statuary 



260 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

bronze is a mean between genuine bronze and brass, it 
being harder and tougher than the latter, but surpassed in 
these properties by the former. 

Statuary bronze being chiefly used for artistic purposes, 
its color is of great importance. By small variations in the 
content of tin and zinc which must, however, be always 
kept between the indicated limits, the color may be shaded 
from orange-yellow to pale yellow, With an excessive con- 
tent of tin the alloy becomes brittle and difficult to chisel, 
and by increasing the content of zinc the warm tone of 
color is lost, and the bronze does not acquire, on exposure 
to the air, a fine patina. 

This pale-green patina, the beautiful development of 
which is especially noticeable upon ancient, particularly 
Greek, bronzes, consists essentially of oxides and basic car- 
bonates of the constituents of the bronze and is formed in 
the course of time by the chemical action of moisture and 
the oxygen and carbonic acid of the air. The beautiful 
patina should possess a lustrous tone of color and a smooth 
surface. Articles coated with it should even after centuries 
preserve their contours in all their fineness and sharpness 
as produced by casting and subsequent working, as well as 
their metallic luster. 

Such a patina may be noticed on copper which has been 
used for roofing and for chased work as, for instance, the 
Victory group upon the Brandenburg gate at Berlin, as 
well as on numerous bronzes with, and without, the addition 
of zinc and lead. On the other hand, copper-zinc alloys 
without tin, usually turn black when exposed to the air, 
especially when the content of zinc is a considerable one 
(brass), and become coated with a rough, dull layer of 
oxide, the formation of which very soon impaiis the sharp- 
ness of the contours. Many bronzes show a similar be- 
havior. Hence it is evident that the composition of bronze 
articles erected in the open air exerts an influence upon the 
permanency of their beauty and many investigations have 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 26l 

been made to answer the question of what is the most suit- 
able composition of bronzes for the formation of a beauti- 
ful patina. It has been found, at least generally speaking, 
that bronzes rich in zinc and poor in tin are in this respect 
inferior to those poorer in zinc, and that incidental admix- 
tures are also not without influence upon the formation of 
patina, a content of arsenic especially contributing towards 
the bronze turning black. A small content of lead such as 
is generally found in European bronzes, does not seem to 
have an injurious effect. Moreover the location of the 
bronze article exerts an influence upon the formation of the 
patina. In a smoky atmosphere or in one containing sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, even the best bronzes acquire a black, 
instead of a, green coating, which consists partially of cupric 
sulphide and partially of mechanically deposited soot.* On 
the other hand, even bronzes rich |in zinc acquire a green 
patina if located in pure air and exposed to atmospheric in- 
fluences. Finally, it cannot be doubted that the processes 
of moulding and casting are not without influence upon the 
subsequent formation of patina. Porous castings with 
rough surfaces will more readily accumulate dust and soot 
and be less inclined to the formation of a beautiful patina 
than dense castings with smooth surfaces. 

Though the alloys best adapted for statues are definitely 
known at the present time, it happens sometimes that many 
large castings do not exhibit the right qualities. Their 
color is either defective, or they do not acquire a beautiful 
patina, or are difficult to chisel. These evils may be due 
either to the use of impure metals or to the treatment of 
the alloy in melting. On account of the large content of 
zinc there is a considerable loss in melting, amounting even 

*In the black coating of the monument of the Elector at Berlin, which 
was formerly covered with a beautiful patina but has now turned black, 
Weber found 5.79 per cent, of sulphur and particles of soot. In the black 
coating of two Nuremberg statues, Kammerer found 4.1 to 6.8 per cent, 
sulphur and large quantities of sand and soot. 



262 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



with the most careful work to at least 3 per cent., and 
sometimes reaching 10 per cent., and it is evident that in 
consequence of this loss the alloy will show an entirely dif- 
ferent composition from what it should have according to 
the quantity of metal used in its preparation. 

The color of the alloys, as mentioned above, quickly 
changes by variations in their compositions. The following 
table gives a series of alloys of different colors suitable for 
statuary bronze : — 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Color. 


84.42 


11.28 


4-30 


red yellow. 


84.00 


11.00 


5.00 


orange-red. 


83.05 


1303 


3.92 


' ' 


83.00 


12.00 


5.00 


' ' 


81.05 


15-32 


3.63 


orange yellow. 


81.00 


15.00 


4.00 




78.09 


18.47 


3-44 


' ' 


73.58 


23.27 


3-15 


1 ' 


73.00 


. 23.00 


4.00 


pale orange. 


70.36 


26.88 


2.76 


pale yellow. 


70 00 


27. CO 


3.00 


■' 


65-95 


3I.56 


2.49 





According to d'Arcet the best bronze for statues consists 
of copper, 78.5 parts; zinc, 17.2; tin, 2.9; and lead, 1.4; 
or, of copper, 164 parts ; zinc, 36 ; tin, 6; and lead, 3. 

In the following table will be found the composition of a 
few celebrated statues : — 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 



263 



Equestrian statue of Louis 
XIV, cast i6cg. by Keller . . • 

Statue of Henry IV, Paris 

Equestrian statue of Louis XV; 

Minerva statue, Paris 

Statue of Napoleon, Paris 

Old Vendome column, Paris,' 
from captured cannon I 

All ys of Stiglmayr, Munich,' 
for instance, statue of Ba- 
varia j 

Statue of Lessing, Brunswick. 1 

Statues of Melanchthon, Wit- 
tenberg, and of Frederick; 
W'lliam IV, Cologne, byi 
Gladenbeck 

Statue of Count Brandenburg, 
of Thaer, and of the lion 
fighter in front of the 
Museum, Berlin, by Gladen- 
beck . 

Statue of Blucher, Berlin 

Statue of Frederick the Great, 
Berlin 

Shepherd, Potsdam Palace 

Bacchus, 

Germanicus, Potsdam ' 

Statue of the Great Elector, 
Berlin, erected 1703 j 

Statue of Fredeick William, 
Berlin 

Horse-tamer, Berlin j 

Statue of the Elector John 
William, Diisseldorf I 

Statue of Albrecht Durer, 1 
Niirnberg I 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


91.40 


5-35 


89.62 


4.'.o 


82 45 


IO.30 


83 


14 


75 


20 


89.2 


o.S 


91. 5 


5-5 


84.2 


11. 5 


89.55 


7.46 



90. T 
88.3 

88.66 
89-54 



89-09 

87.44 
84.55 

71-74 

88.6 



9.72 

5-3 

9-5 
1.28 

1.63 
2-35 

I.64 



15.63 
25.58 
0.1 



Tin. 


Lead. 


1.70 

5 70 
4.10 

2 

2 


i-37 
0.48 
3 15 

1 
2 


10.2 


0.1 


1-7 

3-55 


1.3 

o.75 


2,99 


- 







Iron. Nickel. 



Anti- 
mony. 



4-6 

1.4 
9.-0 
7-50 
6.16 

5-82 

3-20 

0.14 

2.37 

5-2 



0.7 
0.77 

1. 21 
1-33 

2.62 

0.65 
0.16 

0,91 

4-5 



0.18 



0.27 
O.II 



Chinese bronzes. — Some bronzes exhibited at the Paris 
Exhibition attracted special attention, not only on account 
of their artistic beauty, but also on account of the unusually 
deep bronze color, which, in many specimens, presented a 
beautiful dead-black appearance. The color, which was 
doubtless intended to contrast with the silver of the filigree 
work was proved to belong to the substance proper of the 
bronze, and not to have been artificially produced by an 
application upon its surface. Analyses of the different 
specimens of the bronze gave the following results : — 



264 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Parts. 



I. II. III. 

Tin ■■• 4-36 5-52 7-27 

Copper 82.72 72.09 72.32 

Lead 9.9 20.31 14-59 

Iron 0.55 1.73 0.28 

Zinc 1.86 0.67 6.00 

Arsenic — trace trace 

These alloys contain a much larger proportion of lead 
than is found in ordinary bronze ; and it is noticeable that 
the quantity of lead increases precisely with the intensity of 
the bronze color, proving, as before stated, that the latter 
is due to the special composition of the bronze. 

Some of the specimens contain a considerable proportion 
of zinc, but the presence of this metal, instead of improving 
the appearance, seemed rather to counter-balance the effect 
of the lead. 

In imitation of the Chinese bronze some alloys were 
made of the following composition . — 

I. II. 

Tin 5.5 parts. 5.0 parts. 

Copper.... 72.5 " 83.0 " 

Lead 20.0 " 10. " 

Iron 1.5 " — " 

Zinc 0.5 " 2.0 " 

No. I. produced an alloy exceedingly difficult to work, 
and, without giving any superior results as regards color, 
furnished castings which were extremely brittle. 

No. II., on the contrary, gave an alloy exactly resemb- 
ling the Chinese bronze. Its fracture and polish were iden- 
tical, and when heated in a muffle it quickly assumed the 
peculiar dead-black appearance so greatly admired in the 
Chinese specimens. 

Hitherto it has been found difficult, if not impossible, to 
obtain this depth of color with bronzes of modern art, since 
the surface scales off when heated under similar conditions 
as No. II. 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 265 

Japanese bronzes. — An analysis of Japanese bronzes made 
by M. E, J. Maumene gave the following results : — 

Copper 86.38 80.91 88.70 92.07 

Tin 1.94 7-55 2.58 1.04 

Antimony 1.61 0.44 0.10 1.04 

Lead 5.68 5.33 3.54 1.04 

Zinc 3.36 3.08 3.71 2.65 

Iron 0.67 1.43 1.07 3.64 

Manganese 0.67 trace 1.07 3.64 

Silicic acid 0.10 0.16 0.09 0.04 

Sulphur 0.10 0.31 0.09 0.04 

Waste 0.26 0.79 0.21 0.56 

All these alloys show a granulated texture, are blistered 
in the interior, and sound on the exterior surface. In the 
presence of an abundance of antimony their color is sensibly 
violet, and red in the presence of iron. The specimens 
were cast thin, from 0.195 to 0.468 inch, and the mould was 
well filled. 

Old Peruvian bronze. — An old chisel, weighing about 7 
ounces, found in Quito, and which had evidently been used 
for working trachyte, * showed according to Boussingault 
the following composition : Copper 95.0 parts, tin 4.5, lead 
0.2, iron 0.3, silver, traces. 

A chisel brought by Humboldt to Europe from a silver 
mine worked by the Incas consists of copper 94 per cent., 
tin 6 per cent. Charlon ascribes the hardness of the tools 
used by the Peruvians in mining, which consisted of copper 
94 per cent, and tin 6 per cent., to the presence of a small 
quantity of silicon. 

A Turkish bronze basin examined by Fleck was composed 
of copper 78.54 parts, tin 20.27, lead 0.54, iron 0.19. 

An antique bronze zveapon in the form of a chisel, which 
was found near Bremen, was composed of copper 85.412 
parts, tin 6.846, iron 0.346. 

*A nearly compact, feldspathic, volcanic rock, breaking with a rough 
surface, and often containing crystals of glassy feldspar, with sometimes 
hornblende and mica. 



266 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Melting and casting art-bronze. — On account of the 
oxidability of the bronze used for statues and other objects 
of art, certain precautions have to be observed in melting 
in order to reduce the loss to a minimum. Crucibles are- 
used for melting small quantities, and reverberatory furnaces 
for melting larger quantities for statues, etc. In melting 
in the crucible all the constituents of the bronze are, as a 
rule, introduced at one time, while in melting in a reverbera- 
tory furnace any old metal to be used together with the 



Fig 




Fig. 28. 




copper is first melted ; the previously heated zinc is then 
added, and finally the tin. The loss or waste varies accord- 
ing to the composition of the alloy, the period of melting, 
and the arrangement of the furnace, and amounts with the 
use of a reverberatory furnace to between 5 and 10 per 
cent.; less with the use of a crucible. 

Figs. 27 and 28 exhibit a furnace used in the Royal 
Foundry in Munich. The charge is 27,500 lbs. Fig. 2y 
shows the section in the direction of x x, and Fig. 28 in 
the direction of y y. A is the grate, b the hearth, c the tap 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 267 

hole, d are air channels in the external wall for carrying off 
the products of combustion, e is the foundry-pit, / stoke 
channel, g charging holes. 

The operation is commenced by heating the furnace to a 
red heat, and then quickly introducing the copper. The 
latter being melted, it is covered with a layer of coal, and 
the previously-heated zinc added. Immediately after the 
introduction of the latter the tin is added, and the fused 
mass frequently stirred with wooden poles in order to pre- 
vent, by the products of distillation evolved from the wood, 
the oxidation of the metals, and to promote the homo- 
geneity of the alloy. 

Before using the metal for casting, many founders draw 
it in a very thinly-fluid state into a pan or kettle standing 
in front of the tap-hole, and allow it to stand for some 
time in order to separate on the surface any oxide still con- 
tained in the alloy, which otherwise would injure the purity 
of the casting. After -the layer of oxide is removed, the 
clay-plug closing the discharge-aperture in the bottom of 
the pan is removed, and the metal allowed to run into the 
mould placed in the pit directly in front of the furnace. 

Loam-moulds can only be used for large castings, and it 
being impossible to previously heat them, the fused metal 
is introduced from below and gradually rises to the top. 
When it runs from the apertures in the top of the mould 
and from the vent-holes, the mould has been successfully 
filled. 

The following table * is a list of about 140 different 
alloys of copper and tin, giving some of their mechanical 
and physical properties : — 

* Prepared originally for United States Board; Committee on Metallic 
Alloys. Report, Vol. I, 1879, p. 390. 



268 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Remarks. 




o. Specific gravity of bar. 
b. Specific gravity of turn- 
ings from ingot, 

Cast copper. 
Sheet copper. 

Mean of 9 samples. 

Defective bar. 
Can be forged like copper. 
Rstmrods for guns. 
Defective bar. 
Resists action of hydro- 
[chloric acid. 

Annealed & compressed. 
Hard, malleable. 

Pieces of machines. 
Specific gravity after re- 
peated tempering. 

Bronze for medals. 

Shows separation of met- 
als when examined with 
a lens. 

English ordnance. 

Ordnance metal. 


1 pQ t 2Q pQ PQ , PQ PQ 

Ip P a & P & 


•oox = 

jaAiis AjiDLnoaja 
ioj AjiAijonpuoc) 


93.16 

79.3 
62.46 

19.68 


•001 
= jaAjis 'jBaq 
joj ^tAtjonpuoo 


81.1 
73.6 




•dan'BW) 
^jijiqisnj jo japio 


I ■ S 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 II 1 l 1 1 1 1 II II 


•(^II'BH) faun 
-vairBm jo aap-io 


1 « I 1 I I 1 I ' 1 1 1 1 ■ I 1; 1 1 li I i I l i I M ii 


•(uosuqof 

PU'B JjaAJBO PUB 

'jaijBjM) ssaupiBH 


1 S 1 o | | 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 | 1 1 II 11 


•(uojsanqx) 
Ajijijonp aAi^Bia^ 


30.8 

100.1 
70.3 

21.9 
43.2 


"(iStlBW) 

1 Ajijijo^P jo japjo 


1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 II || 


•qoin ajBnbs ,iad 
spunod 'XjiOBuax 


27,800 
55,104 

24,252 

32,000 

28,510 
27,900 


O) 

u 
o 

t*4 


Fibrous 
Earthy 

Vesicular 

Vesicular 
Vesicular 

Vesicular 
Vesicular 


1 

o 
O 


Copper-red 
Tile-red 

Red 

Red 

Reddish- 
yellow 

Golden 
yellow 

Reddish- 
yellow 

Reddish- 
yellow 


■^ia^jS otjpads 


8.791a 
8.8746 
8.'i67 
8.921 

8.794 
8 921 
8.952 

8.672 

8.564 

8.511 
8.649 
8.947 

8,939 

8.820 
8.694 

8.684 


•sis^jbub Aq 
lioijisodraoy 


oa 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 II 1 1 M Mill 1 II II 


3 

o 


97.89 
96.06 


•ainixim 
IbuiSuo'jo 
uoijjsoduroo 


OOOOOOOO.-IOOOOC<:c0 OO OOMBO O OlO COO 
C OOpOOOOO-^CnC:0 O l~ 00 . Cr. O O OG « lO O C4 ^^ 

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270 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



M 
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Chinese gong.' 
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274 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 

Bo. — Bolley. Essais et Recherches Chimigues, Paris, 1869, pp. 345,348. 

Cr. — Croockewit. Erdmann s Journal, XLV, 1848, pp. 87 to 93. 

C. J. — Calvert and Johnson. Specific Gravities, Phil. Mag., 1859, Vol. 

18, pp. 354 to 359; Hardness, Phil. Mag., 1859, Vol. 17, pp. 114 to 

121 ; Heat Conductivity , Phil. Trans., 1858, pp. 349 to 368. 
De.— S. B. Dean. Ordnance Notes, No. XL. Washington, 1875. 
La. — Lafond. Dingier s Jour., 1855, Vol. 135, p. 269. 
Ml.— Mallet. Phil. Mag., 18 2, Vol. 21, pp. 66 to 68. 
Ma. — Matthiessen. Phil. Trans., i860, p. 161 ; ibid., 1864, pp. 167 to 200. 
Mar. — Marchaud and Scheerer. Journal fuer Praktische Chemie, Vol. 2J r 

p. 193 (Clark's "Constants of Nature"). 
Mus.— Muschenbroek. Ure' 's Dictionary , article "Alloy." 
Ri. — Riche. Annates de Chimie, 1873, Vol. 20, pp. 351 to 419. 
U. S. B. — Report of Committee on Metallic Alloys of United States 

Board appointed to Test Iron, Steel, etc. 
T. — Thomas Tomscn. — Annates de Chimie, 1814, Vol. 89, pp. 46 to 58. 
W. Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry . 
Wa— Major Wade, United States Army. Report on Experiments on 

Metals for Cannon, Phil., Baird, 1856. 
We.— Weidemann. Phil. Mag., i860, Vol. 19, pp. 243, 244. 

Note on the table. — In the preceding table the figures of 
order of ductility, hardness, and fusibility are taken from 
Mallet's experiments on a series of 16 alloys, the figure 1 
representing the maximum, and 16 the minimum, of the 
property. The ductility of the brittle metals is represented 
by Mallet as o. 

The relative ductility given in the table of the alloys ex- 
perimented on by the U. S. Board is the proportionate 
extension of the exterior fibers of the pieces tested by 
torsion as determined by the autograph strain diagrams. 
It will be seen that the order of ductility differs widely 
from that given by Mallet. 

The figures of relative hardness, on the authority of 
Calvert and Johnson, are those obtained by them by means 
of an indenting tool. The figures are on a scale in which 
cast-iron is rated at 1000. The word "broke" in this col- 
umn indicates the fact that the alloy opposite which it oc- 
curs broke under the indenting tool, showing that the rela- 



COPPER-TIN ALLOYS. 275 

tive hardness could not be measured, but was considerably 
greater than that of cast-iron. 

The figures of specific gravity show a fair agreement 
among the several authorities in the alloys containing more 
than 35 per cent, of tin, except those given by Mallet, which 
are in general very much lower than those by all other 
authorities. In the alloys containing less than 35 per cent, 
of tin there is a wide variation among all the different au- 
thorities, Mallet's figures, however, being generally lower 
than the others. Several of the figures of specific gravity 
have been selected from Riche's results of experiments on 
the effects of annealing, tempering and compression, which 
show that the latter especially tends to increase the speci- 
fic gravity of all the alloys containing less than 20 per 
cent, tin, to about 8.95. This result is due merely to the 
closing-up of the blow-holes, thus diminishing the porosity. 
The specific gravity of 8.953 was obtained by Major Wade 
by casting a small bar in a cold iron mould from the same 
metal, which gave a specific gravity of only 8.313 when 
cast in the form of a small bar in a clay mould. The former 
result is exceptionally high, and indicates the probability 
that every circumstance of the melting, pouring, casting, 
and cooling was favorable. to the exclusion of the gas which 
forms blow-holes and to the formation of perfectly compact 
metal. 

The figures of tenacity given by Mallet, Muschenbroek, 
and Wade agree with those found in the experiments as 
closely as could be expected from the very variable strengths 
of alloys of the same composition which have been found 
by all experimenters. 

Mallet's figure for copper, 24.6 tons or 55,104 pounds, is 
certainly much too high for cast copper ; the piece which 
he tested was probably rolled or perhaps drawn into wire. 
Haswell's Pocket Book gives the following as the tensile 
strength of copper ; the names of the authorities are not 
given : — 



276 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Pounds per 
square inch. 

Copper, wrought 34,000 

Copper, rolled 36,000 

Copper, cast (American) ' 24,250 

Copper, wire 61 ,200 

Copper, bolt 36,800 

The strength of gun-bronze, as found in the guns, is not 
given in the table, which is designed to compare the various 
authorities on the tenacities of the alloys only as cast under 
ordinary conditions, and not when compressed, rolled, or 
cast under pressure. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS'. 

In the preceding chapters the alloys of copper have been 
described which on account of their easy preparation and 
the larger proportion of the metals which are combined 
with the copper are in general use. There are, however, a 
number of other copper alloys which, though at present 
seldom employed, possess properties deserving attention. 

Copper-arsenic alloys. — Arsenic imparts to copper a very 
beautiful white color and great hardness and brittleness. 
Before German silver was known these alloys known as 
zvhite copper, white tombac, argent hache, Chinese peiong, 
etc., were sometimes used for the manufacture of cast 
articles which were not to come in contact with iron. On 
exposure to the air these alloys, however, retain their white 
color for a short time only, and acquire a brownish tinge. 
On account of this, as well as the poisonous character of 
arsenic and the difficulty of working them, these alloys are 
very little used at the present time. 

A white, brittle, lustrous alloy capable of taking a high 
polish is obtained by pressing a mixture of 70 parts copper 
in the form of fine shavings, and 30 of white arsenic into a 
crucible, and melting the mixture under a surface coat of 
glass in a furnace of good draught. Or by melting copper 
with white arsenic and black flux, or by melting 16 parts 
copper and 1 part calcium arsenate under a cover of borax, 
coal dust and glass powder. 

Copper-lead alloys. An addition of lead to copper 
renders it softer and more ductile. Alloys of copper and 
lead are subject to separation or liquation, the lead separat- 
ing out and leaving the copper in a porous mass, especially 

( 277 ) 



278 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

if the alloy is not quickly solidified. In preparing the alloys 
the copper is melted down under a cover of charcoal dust, 
the fire is then made as hot as possible and the lead quickly 
introduced into the overheated copper. As soon as all is 
melted, stir several times with an iron rod to make the 
alloy homogeneous, and quickly pour the liquid mass into 
cold metallic moulds. On account of the above-mentioned 
liquation it is difficult to obtain faultless large castings of 
these alloys, and hence they are cast into thin plates, which 
are subsequently rolled out into sheets. The alloy forms a 
metal of gray color, brittle and of feeble affinity. An alloy 
of copper 4 parts and lead 1 is sometimes used for large 
type. 

For sheets and plates requiring no great durability, 
Guettier recommends an alloy of equal parts lead and cop- 
per. For hard solder Domingo recommends an alloy of 
copper 15.16 parts and lead 20. 

Copper-iron alloys. In ancient times such alloys in the 
form of black copper appear to have been employed for 
castings. A statue of Buddha from Hindostan, about 3500 
years old, contains, according to Forbes, 91.502 copper, 
7.591 iron, 0.021 silver, 0.005 g°ld, 0.079 arsenic, 0.510 
sulphur, 0.292 insoluble matter, and traces of nickel and 
manganese. An alloy of copper 2 and iron 1 possesses 
great strength, which decreases with the increase in iron, 
while the hardness increases. An addition of 3 to 4 per 
cent, copper to malleable iron gave, according to Holtzer, 
with decreased strength an elongation of 22.5 per cent, and 
a decrease in the cross-section of 51 per cent. According 
to Billings iron with 2 per cent, copper gives a very red- 
short, dark gray, granular alloy. However, according to 
the more recent investigations of Ball and Wingham, copper 
in iron is not so dangerous as generally supposed, and the 
red-shortness ascribed to copper may be due to sulphur 
occurring in the ores. The authors named found cuprifer- 
ous steel stronger, but harder, than steel free from copper. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 279 

Copper-steel. — Some years ago M. Henry Schneider, of 
Cruezot, France, took out patents for the manufacture of 
alloys of iron and copper, and steel and copper. In the 
patent specifications it is stated the alloy of cast iron and 
copper can be made in a crucible, cupola, or open-hearth 
furnace. " The furnace is charged with copper scrap and 
cast iron mixed between layers of coke, or if a cuprous 
coke be employed then the cast iron is laid in alternate 
layers with it, and a layer of anthracite is preferably laid 
over the whole. The alloy thus formed contains, generally, 
from five to twenty per cent, of copper, according to 
the purpose for which it is to be employed, and it is re- 
markable for its great strength, tenacity and malleability — 
properties which may be still further developed by chilling 
or tempering." * 

The alloy thus formed is charged into the bed of a furn- 
ace, with the ordinary ingredients used in the manufacture 
of steel, preferably under a layer of anthracite, to avoid oxi- 
dation. It is important that the copper be introduced at 
as early a stage in the process as possible. The said alloy 
may be introduced either while melted or in its hardened 
condition, or it may be prepared in the furnace itself, where 
the operation of manufacturing the steel is carried on. In 
the latter -case, the bed of anthracite is first prepared and 
the copper placed thereon with a suitable quantity of cast 
or pig iron. The whole is then covered with anthracite, in 
order to protect the metal from contact with the air during 
fusion. When the charge is melted, the excess of anthracite 
is removed and successive charges of iron or scrap added, 
the operation being then continued in the ordinary way, 
care being taken to continually protect the bath from oxi- 
dation by means of a layer of slag or cinder, which may be 
renewed as required, and also to prevent red-shortness in 
the metal before the final introduction of the recarbonizing 
and manganiferous silico-spiegel iron or ferro-manganese. 

*U. S. Patent 415,656, Nov. 19. 1889. 



280 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



The steel produced by this means contains from two to 
four per cent, of copper. 

It is stated in the patent specifications that the steels 
alloyed with copper are especially useful in the manufacture 
of ordnance, armor-plate, gun-barrels, projectiles and for 
other military purposes, or in the manufacture of commercial 
bars, sheets, etc.* 

In view of the remarkable elastic limit of copper-steel 
while maintaining at the same time a very considerable 
elongation, Mr. F. Lynwood Garrison t is of the opinion 
that it would not be surprising if its use became very exten- 
sive in the arts. It has the advantage over aluminium, 
nickel and tungsten steels in being cheaper to manufacture. 

Alloys of copper and much zinc. Pure zinc fouls the cut of 
files, and to decrease this evil it is mixed with small quanti- 
ties (i to 10 per cent.) of copper or iron, or of both metals. 
For cheaper bearing metals better able to resist friction, 
which are harder and stronger than pure zinc and have but 
a slight coefficient of friction, zinc may be combined with 
tin, a little copper, and some antimony. The annexed 
table gives the composition of a few of such alloys : 



English bearing metal, very 
good, Yz brass 

Same for rapidly revolving 
shafts 

Rolls for calico printing.. 

Metal for pump cocks, 
which does not deposit 
verdegris 

Pierrot's metal ....... 

Kniess' bearing metal 

Wagner's bearing metal for 
steam engines 

Dunlevie and Jones' bear- 
ing metal 



Zinc. 


Copper. 


80 


5-5 


76.14 
78.3 


5-69 
5-6 


12 

83.33 

40 


7 
2.27 

3 


24 


0-5 


52 


1.6 



Anti- 
mony. 



3-79 

3 
0.4 



Tin. 


Lead. 


14.5 


— 


17-47 


— 


15-8 




21 





7-57 


3-03 


15 


42 


18 


14-5 


46 


— 



Iron. 



0.5 



*U. S. Patent 415,654, Nov. 19, 1889. The British Patents Nos. 16,568 
and 16,569, 1888, seem to have been abandoned in 1890. 
tjour. of the Franklin Inst., Sept., 1891. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 28l 

Dunlevie and Jones' bearing metal is prepared by melt- 
ing the copper in a crucible, adding \ of the tin and the 
antimony, and pouring into an ingot-mold. In another 
crucible the zinc is melted together with the rest of the 
tin, and, after adding the first alloy, the whole is again 
melted. 

Alloys which can be filed are composed of zinc 90 to 99 
and copper 1 to 10 ; or zinc 98 to 99.8 and iron 0.2 to 2 ; 
or zinc 97, copper 2.5, and iron 0.5 ; or zinc 68, copper 11, 
tin 21. 

Manganese-brass. — According to Parkes, copper 70. 
manganese 30 and zinc 20 to 30 give a silver-like alloy 
which can be forged and rolled at a red heat. If the alloy 
is not required to stand a high temperature the composition 
is: Copper 49, manganese 21, iron 5 to 10, and zinc 5 to 
10. For soldering the alloy the following composition is 
suitable : Copper 7, manganese 3, silver 1 to 2, 

For coins, copper 65, manganese 25 and zinc 10 may be 
melted together, or copper 65, manganese 15 to 20, zinc 10, 
and nickel 5 to 10. 

Copper-tungsten alloys. — Copper and tungsten unite, 
according to Biermann, to an alloy with 10 per cent, tung- 
sten which combines hardness and elasticity with tough- 
ness, and is suitable for axle bearings and telegraph wires. 
Tungsten-copper combines also with other metals. Bier- 
mann prepared an alloy with iron 66, nickel 23, tungsten 
4, and copper 5. According to Pufahl, Biermann's tung- 
sten bronze contains copper 95.39, tin 3.04 and tungsten 

I-57- 

Copper'-cobalt alloys. — These alloys show a red color and 
a fracture resembling that of pure copper. They are distin- 
guished by great ductility and tenacity, and can be forged 
and stretched in the heat, and cannot be hardened. They 
are prepared by melting together copper and cobalt in a 
crucible under a cover of boric acid and charcoal. An alloy 
cast in grains, which is attracted by a magnet, is composed 



282 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of cobalt 48.20 per cent., nickel 1, copper 50.26, and iron 
0.46. It is red, while an alloy containing equal proportions 
of nickel and copper shows a white color. Alloys with 1 
to 6 per cent, of cobalt can be as readily forged, stretched^ 
and rolled hot as copper, but are considerably tougher. 
An alloy with 5 per cent, cobalt shows especially valuable 
properties ; it is non-oxidizable and ductile like copper,, 
elastic and tough like iron, and will no doubt be applied to 
many purposes. 

Cobalt bronze of Wiggin & Co., of Birmingham, is an 
alloy of copper, cobalt, zinc, tin or lead, and is said to 
possess all the properties of pure cobalt. 

Copper-magnesium alloys. — According to Grazel, an 
alloy of copper and magnesium is used as addition to tom- 
bac castings, and when of a pale red color and quite brittle 
contains, according to Pufahl, copper 89.31, magnesium 
10.18, aluminium 0.05, nickel 0.21, lead 0.08 and iron 0.07. 

According to Warren, alloys of copper with magnesium 
as regards general properties do not surpass the other 
usual copper alloys, which can be more readily prepared. 
An alloy with 1 1 per cent, magnesium has a brass-like ap- 
pearance, is very brittle, and when melted together with 
copper gives alloys which with an increase in the content 
of copper become less brittle. An alloy with 4 per cent, 
magnesium resembles an actual bronze in appearance and 
physical properties ; 1 yi per cent, magnesium makes the 
copper somewhat lighter in color, and harder. The French 
Society industrielle et commercial des metaux has intro- 
duced alloys of copper with iron, nickel and zinc-mag- 
nesium. 

Copper-antimony alloys. — According to Held, a mal- 
leable gold-like alloy is obtained by adding to 100 parts of 
melted copper 6 parts of antimony, and, when liquefaction 
is complete, some wood ashes, calcareous spar and mag- 
nesium to remove porosity. The alloy is said to be 
stronger than gold. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS. 283 

Melted together in equal parts copper and antimony 
give a hard combination of a beautiful violet color suitable 
for fancy articles. 

Mira metal. — The alloy known by this name is distin- 
guished by great resistance towards acids and is, therefore, 
especially suitable for cocks, pipes, etc., which come in 
contact with acid liquids. Mira metal contains according 
to analysis: Copper 74.755, zinc 0.615, lead 16.350, tin 
0.910, iron 0.430, nickel and cobalt 0.240, antimony 6.785. 



CHAPTER IX. 

TIN-ALLOYS. 

Tin is distinguished by its beautiful white color and by 
its permanency when exposed to the air. Although soft in 
itself, it has the property of hardening many other soft 
metals. It is but seldom worked by itself but, as a rule, 
alloyed with another metal whereby its comparatively slight 
hardness is increased, and it also becomes more thinly-fluid 
and more capable of being cast. The metal most frequently 
used for alloying with tin is lead, which combines with it 
without difficulty in all proportions by weight. 

Tin-Lead Alloys. — These alloys are easily made. Lead 
added to tin increases its malleability and ductility while its 
properties are not materially impaired ; its tenacity is how- 
ever decreased. Difficult to break even after successive 
bendings, tin becomes more brittle when alloyed with lead. 
The fracture is then more marked than that of lead, what- 
ever may be the proportions in the alloy, the latter metal 
being more readily separated than tin but requiring, never- 
theless, to be torn asunder. The strongest alloy of tin and 
lead is produced by alloying tin 3 parts and lead 1, the 
density of this alloy being 8. According to Watson, the 
densities of tin-lead alloys are as follows : — 



o 
10 
32 
16 

8 

4 
2 

1 



11.3 

7.2 

7-3 
7-4 
7-6 
7-8 
8.2 



Alloys of tin and lead were formerly much used in the 

(284) 



TIN ALLOYS. 285 

manufacture of domestic utensils. They are, however, not 
suitable for this purpose, on account of the solubility and 
poisonous properties of the lead. Under no circumstances 
should an alloy of tin and lead used in the manufacture of 
domestic utensils contain more than 10 to 15 per cent, of 
lead. Such an alloy is not sensibly attacked by vinegar 
and fruit acids. But unfortunately there are cases in which 
the so-called tin contains as much as one-third of its weight 
of lead. 

Alloys containing from 10 to 15 per cent, of lead have a 
beautiful white color, are considerably harder than pure tin, 
and much cheaper. Many alloys of tin and lead have an 
especially lustrous appearance and are used for stage-jewelry 
and mirrors for reflecting the light of lamps, etc. An 
especially lustrous alloy is known under the name of Pahlun 
brilliants. It is used for stage jewelry and consists of tin 
29 parts, lead 19. The alloy is poured into moulds faceted 
in the same manner as diamonds. Seen in an artificial 
light, the pieces of metal thus cast are so brilliant as to 
produce the effect of diamonds. Other alloys of tin and 
lead of some importance are those used in the manufacture 
of toys (tin soldiers). They must fill the moulds well and 
be cheap, and, consequently, as much as 50 per cent, of 
lead is used. With the use of sharp iron or brass moulds 
such an alloy yields good castings. Toys can also be pre- 
pared from type-metal, which is even cheaper than alloys of 
tin and lead, but has the disadvantage of readily breaking 
on sharply bending the articles. 

In the following table the melting points of alloys of tin 
and lead as determined by Messrs. Parkes and Martin are 
given : — 



286 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Composition. 


Melting 


Composition. 


Melting 






points. 








Tin. 


Lead. 


Degrees F. 


. Tin. 


Lead. 


Degrees F. 


4 


4 


372° 


4 


28 


527° 


6 


4 


336 


4 


30 


530 


8 


4 


340 


4 


32 


532 


10 


4 


348 


4 


34 


535 


12 


4 


336 


4 


36 


538 


14 


4 


362 


4 


38 


540 


ib 


4 


367 


4 


40 


542 


18 


4 


372 


4 


42 


544 


20 


4 


378 


4 


44 


546 


22 


4 


380 


4 


46 


548 


24 


4 


382 


4 


48 


550 


4 


4 


392 


4 


50 


551 


4 


6 


412 


4 


52 


552 


4 


8 


442 


4 


54 


554 


4 


10 


470 


4 


56 


555 


4 


12 


482 


4 


58 


556 


4 


14 


490 


4 


60 


557 


4 


16 


498 


4 


62 


557 


4 


18 


505 


4 


64 


557 


4 


20 


512 


4 


66 


557 


4 


22 


517 


4 


68 


557 


4 


24 


519 


4 


70 


558 


4 


26 


523 









For baths used by cutlers and others in tempering and 
heating steel articles, Parkes and Martin propose the follow- 
ing alloys : — 



No. 



1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

9 

10 
11 
12 




Lancets 

Other surgical instruments 

Razors 

Pen-knives 

Knives, scalpels, etc 

Chisels, garden knives 

Hatchets 

Table knives 

Swords, watch springs 
Large springs, small saws 

Hand saws 

Articles of low temper , 



Composition. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


7 


4 


7/2 


4 


8 


4 


8/ 


4 


10 


4 


14 


4 


19 


4 


30 


4 


48 


4 


50 


4 


Oil bo 


ding. 


1 


4 



Melting 

points. 

Degrees F. 



420 

430 

442 

450 

470 

490 

509 

530 

550 

558 

600 

612 



TIN ALLOYS. 287 

Britannia Metal. 

The alloy known under this name consists principally of 
tin alloyed with antimony. Many varieties contain only 
these two metals and may be considered tin hardened by 
antimony. Other alloys, also called Britannia metal, con- 
tain, however, in addition, certain quantities of copper, 
sometimes lead, and occasionally, though rarely, bismuth. 

The Pewterer's Company of England, which has been an 
incorporated society ever since the reign of Edward IV. 
(1474), in 1772 attempted to regulate the quality of pewter 
wares by permitting enough lead to bring the density of 
pewter from ifiro to tHo", that of tin. Persons who de- 
parted from this regulation were liable to expulsion from 
the guild, but it has been so greatly disregarded as to have 
very little effect in keeping up the standard of pewter. 

Britannia metal has always a silvery color with a bluish 
tinge, and, on account of its hardness, takes a fine polish, 
which it retains on exposure to the air. Though it is quite 
hard, in strength it only slightly surpasses tin. Good 
Britannia metal shows a fine-grained, jagged fracture ; if 
the fracture be quite coarse and strongly crystalline the 
alloy contains too much antimony, and, as a rule, is too 
brittle to be worked to advantage. 

Even with a correct composition, the brittleness of Brit- 
annia metal is such that in rolling it out to sheet the 
edges generally become full of cracks. A content of iron 
or zinc increases this brittleness to a considerable extent, 
and, in preparing an alloy to be rolled out into sheet or to 
be used for stamped articles, great care must be had to 
have the metals to be used entirely free from iron or zinc. 
A content of copper increases the ductility of Britannia 
metal, but decreases its fusibility, which is one of its most 
valuable properties, and besides gives to the color a strong 
yellowish cast. An addition of lead is of advantage es- 
pecially to metal to be principally used for castings, it be- 
coming more fusible thereby and filling out the moulds 



255 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

better, but its color acquires a strong brownish cast, and 
articles manufactured from it lose their luster on exposure 
to the air much more quickly than those containing no lead. 

A large content of antimony, to be sure, imparts great 
hardness and a permanent brilliant luster to Britannia 
metal, but it also decreases its ductility. And, moreover, 
the antimony possessing poisonous properties, its use must 
be restricted, especially if the alloy is to be employed in 
the manufacture of domestic utensils, such as coffee and 
tea pots, etc. It need scarcely be said that for sanitary 
reasons the antimony must be free from arsenic, and 
besides, a very small content of it renders the alloy ex- 
tremely brittle, and articles manufactured from it tarnish 
quickly, especially on exposure to moist air. Alloys con- 
sisting of tin and antimony alone would seem to deserve 
the preference, and a composition of tin 90 parts, antimony 
10, can be especially recommended as regards resistance to 
chemical influences and for its facility of working. 

For most purposes, not requiring a special degree of 
hardness, this alloy is the most suitable, it being readily 
fusible and filling the moulds out well. For articles sub- 
jected to constant wear a harder alloy is required. 

The following table shows the composition of several 
varieties of Britannia metal : — 



TIN ALLOYS. 



289 



Britannia Metal. 



English 

Pewter 

Tutania 

Queen's metal 

German 

" (cast) 

Malleable (cast) 

Birmingham (sheet) 
'" (cast) . 

Karmarsch's 

Koeller's 

Wagner's (fine) 



Parts. 



Tin. Antimony. 



81.90 
90.62 
90.1 

85.4 
81.2 

89.3 

83-30 

91.4 

88.5 

72 

84 

20 

48 

90.60 

90.71 

85.0 

85.70 

85.64 



16.25 
7.81 

6.3 
9.66 

5-7 
7.6 
6.60 

7-i 
24 
9 



7.80 
9.20 
5-0 
10.40 
9.66 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


1.84 


1.46 


— 


3-i 


0.5 


0.81 


3.06 


1.60 


— 


1.8 


— 


1.60 


3.06 


0.7 


0-3 


3-5 


0.9 


4 


— 


2 


5 


10 


6 


3 


48 


1.50 


— 


0.09 


— 


3.60 


1.40 


1. 00 


— 


0.81 


3.06 



Lead. Bismuth. 



15 



7-6 



1.60 



1.60 
1.80 
0.83 



Britannia ware made in Sheffield is often composed of 
block tin 3^ parts, antimony 28, copper 8, brass 8. 

Dr. Carl Karmarsch, who thoroughly studied the proper- 
ties of Britannia metal, says that the specific gravity of the 
alloy is 7.339 for laminated sheets, and 7.361 for casting. 
He explains this anomaly by the fact that the molecules, 
under the action of the rolls, have a tendency to become 
separated, their softness and malleability not being great 
enough to allow of a regular and uniform compression. 
This is not an isolated fact. M. LeBrun has also found a 
lower specific gravity for certain alloys of copper and zinc 
which had been laminated or hammered. 

Britannia metal is prepared by first melting the copper 
by itself, then adding a portion of the tin and the entire 
quantity of the antimony. The fire can then be quickly 
moderated, because the new alloy has a much lower melting 
point than copper. 

The last quantity of tin is finally added, and the alloy un- 
19 



29O THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

interruptedly stirred for some time to make it thoroughly 
homogeneous. 

Britannia metal can be brought into determined shapes 
by pressing and rolling, which will be referred to later on, 
but it being always to some extent brittle, it is preferred to 
prepare many articles by direct casting. To obtain clean 
and beautiful castings, requiring but little after-manipula- 
tion, it is best to use brass moulds. Before casting, the 
moulds have to be strongly heated and the interior lined 
with a special coating to prevent the alloy from adhering. 
This is effected by means of a mixture of lamp-black and 
oil of turpentine, or by lamp-black alone, and, though the 
first process is the more simple and convenient, the latter 
is preferable, especially for casting fine articles. The 
moulds can be so coated as to be beautiful and uniform by 
using an ordinary lamp, similar to a spirit lamp, filled with 
oil of turpentine. By holding the cold mould over the dull 
flame of such a lamp, it becomes coated with a delicate film 
of a velvety black soot, which, while it preserves all the fine 
lines of the mould, prevents the alloy from adhering. 

Instead of lamp-black, some manufacturers use finely elu- 
triated reddle or red chalk mixed to a uniform mass with 
water. With moulds having many small, and at the same 
time, deep turns, it is difficult perfectly to coat the inside 
with the protecting mass, and the coating with lamp-black 
is decidedly to be preferred. 

With ordinary moulds it is, of course, impossible to cast 
an article which is to have a certain shape, in one piece. 
The different parts are consequently cast separately, and 
subsequently put together with a solder of a color as nearly 
like that of the metal as possible. Such articles can, how- 
ever, be also cast in one piece. We will take, for example, 
an article frequently made of Britannia metal : a coffee-pot, 
whose shape is such that it must consist of several pieces. 
To cast it in one piece, the mould must be so constructed 
that it can be completely removed from the finished castings. 



TIN ALLOYS. 2CjI 

The separate parts of the mould having been coated with 
lamp-black, or reddle, are put together, and the whole 
heated nearly to the temperature of the melted Britannia 
metal. The latter is then poured into the mould until it 
seems entirely filled. After waiting until it may be sup- 
posed that a sufficiently thick layer of metal is solidified, 
the mould is quickly turned over to allow the still liquid 
portion of the metal to run out. 

In order to obtain castings of the right condition, this 
mode of procedure requires considerable practical skill, it 
being necessary to hit the exact moment at which the layer 
of metal has acquired the required thickness, and before 
succeeding the operator must be prepared to meet with 
many failures. But by noting by means of a watch the time 
allowed to pass between pouring the metal into the mould, 
and pouring the still liquid portion out, the exact time re- 
quired for the formation of a sufficiently thick layer will 
soon be learned. 

The inside of the articles obtained by the above mode of 
casting is sometimes roughly crystalline. This is due to 
the metal beginning to crystallize, and the corners and 
edges of the small crystals being exposed by pouring out 
the liquid portion of the metal. Care must therefore be 
had to use for such casting an alloy giving a fine-grained 
mass. The interior of the articles, as far as accessible, can 
also be smoothed, while the article is still in the mould, 
with a burnishing stone or burnisher. 

For articles to be made by stamping or other mechanical 
processes, the alloy resulting from melting the metals to- 
gether is ladled into cast-iron boxes, and the slabs thus 
made are subsequently rolled into sheet. Spherical vessels 
are usually "spun up" in halves, which are then united by 
soldering, and smaller articles are generally pressed in 
moulds by a stamping press of very simple construction. 

Cast or stamped Britannia metal has always an unsightly 
gray-white appearance, the innumerable small crystals of 



292 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which the surface of the article is composed preventing a 
complete reflection of the light. The articles must, there- 
fore, be polished, which is effected with a burnisher, or, if 
their shape permits, upon the lathe by means of wooden 
disks covered with leather rubbed with emery. 

A great many articles of Britannia metal are at the present 
time electro-plated with silver, the same as objects of Ger- 
man silver, which are so well manufactured in England, 
Germany, and this country, that it is difficult to distinguish 
them from pure silver. In some cases the Britannia metal 
is electro-plated with tombac. 

Biddery-metal. — The name of this alloy is derived from 
Biddery, a city in the East Indies. It may be classed 
among the alloys known under the collective term of 
Britannia metal, but differs from it in containing lead in- 
stead of antimony. 

Genuine Indian Biddery metal, which is frequently imi- 
tated in England, consists of — 

Parts. 

L I?. 

Copper 3-5 n-4 

Zinc .' 93-4 84.3 

Tin — 1.4 

Lead 3-i 2.9 

According to Dr. Hamilton, who had occasion to witness 
the operation, 123.6 parts of zinc, 4.6 of copper, and 4.14 
of lead, together with a mixture of resin and wax to pre- 
vent oxidation, are melted together in a crucible. The 
fused metal is poured into clay moulds and the articles 
finished with the lathe. The Indian artists impart to the 
articles a beautiful velvety-black color by treatment with a 
solution of sulphate of copper, and decorate the surface in 
a very peculiar and original manner. By means of a graver, 
lines forming frequently very artistic designs, are cut into 
the surface. The lines are then inlaid with fine gold and 
silver wire, pressed in by means of a burnishing tool, after 



1 <r 



TIN ALLOYS. 293 

which the articles are carefully polished. The beauty of 
the black coating being somewhat marred by the manipu- 
lation, is restored by treating the articles with a solution 
of sulphate of copper, sal ammoniac, and saltpetre, and 
finally polishing with very fine polishing agents. 

The finished articles have a peculiar appearance, the gold 
and silver designs upon a velvety-black ground presenting 
frequently a striking resemblance to an embroidery executed 
in gold and silver threads upon black velvet. 

There are several other alloys somewhat resembling 
Britannia metal which are known under various names. Of 
these we mention : — 

Ashberry metal. — It is composed of — 

Parts. 

l7~ I?. 

Copper 2.0 3.0 

Tin 80.0 79.0 

Antimony 14.0 15.0 

Zinc 1.0 2.0 

Nickel : 2.0 1 .0 

Aluminium 1 .0 — 

Minofor metal. — This alloy is composed of — 

Parts. 

l7~ IL 

Copper 3.26 4 

Tin 67.53 66 

Antimony 17.00 20 

Zinc 8.94 9 

Iron — 1 

This alloy, as well as the Ashberry metal, is employed for 
making forks and spoons, coffee-pots, tea-pots, and all 
similar articles generally made of ordinary Britannia metal, 
composed of 9 parts of tin and 1 of antimony. Britannia 
metal in fact surpasses both the Ashberry and Minofor 
metals in beauty, but the latter are harder. 

English metal is a more complex alloy and is composed 



294 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of: Tin 88 parts, pure copper 2, brass (copper 75, zinc 25) 
2, nickel 2, bismuth 1, antimony 8, tungsten 2. 

White Metals. Bearing Metals. 

The so-called white metals contain varying quantities of 
tin, copper and antimony. Sometimes the latter is replaced 
by zinc, the composition in this case approaching more or 
less that of statuary bronze. A simultaneous use of zinc 
and antimony occurs but seldom ; there are further some 
alloys which contain iron or lead besides the mentioned 
metals. A combination of many metals to one and the 
same alloy does not seem especially practicable, since 
our knowledge of the alloys has scarcely reached such a 
point as to enable us to determine with absolute certainty 
how three metals in various proportions of mixture behave 
towards each other, and we are still 'less able to state with 
accuracy the behavior of alloys in the preparation of which 
four, five, or even six metals are used. Besides practical 
experience has shown such alloys to be frequently of no 
•value, and are simply recommended by some persons in 
order to make a market for a new product. 

The so-called white metals serve almost exclusively for 
bearings, some compositions used for the same purpose 
having been already given on page 280. In mechanics a 
very exact line is drawn between the various kinds of bear- 
ings, and they can be chiefly divided into two large groups : 
Red-brass bearings and white-metal bearings. The red- 
brass bearings are distinguished by great hardness and 
power of resistance, and are principally used for bearings 
of heavily-loaded and rapidly-revolving axles. For bearings 
of axles of large, heavy fly-wheels revolving at great speed 
bearings of red brass are aL-o preferable to white metal, 
though they are more expensive. 

White metals are cheaper than red-brass alloys, and have 
a lower melting point, so that a worn-out bearing can be 
readily remelted and replaced by a new one, while with red 



TIN ALLOYS. 295 

brass these operations are connected with much more 
trouble and expense. White-metal bearings possess still 
another property which makes them almost indispensable 
for certain purposes. If, for instance, the shaft resting in 
the bearing does not run perfectly quiet, the consequence 
of the use of a red-brass bearing will be that either the axle 
or the bearing, according to whether the one is harder than 
the other, is subjected to great wear, and this will in a 
short time increase to such an extent that the axle in re- 
volving will swerve considerably. By using, however, for 
these purposes white-metal bearings of a sufficient degree 
of softness, the harder axle by pressing into the softer 
bearing runs more quietly for a longer time than if the lat- 
ter consists of red-brass. The bearing, of course wears 
out as quickly, but this is of little importance since the 
expense of replacing it is comparatively small. 

White metal bearings contain a preponderating quantity 
of tin ; the degree of hardness of such alloys depends chiefly 
on the content of copper, these containing certain quanti- 
ties of it being, as a rule, the strongest and most capable of 
resistance. The tin can, however, be also considerably 
hardened by the use of antimony, and such bearings are 
frequently used at the present time, they being much 
cheaper than those containing copper, though they are not 
so strong, and generally quite brittle, so that they frequently 
break. 

By a metallographic examination * of congealed white 
metal of tin, antimony and copper, three different constitu- 
ents can be distinguished. 

1. A<:icular crystals of a chemical combination of copper 
with tin according to the formula CuSn with about 35 per 
cent, copper and 65 per cent, tin, which are first separated 
from the liquid solution. They are the hardest constituents 
and crumble readily, leaving behind shallow, sharp-edged 

*Charpy. Bulletin de la Societe d' Encouragement 1898 and 1899. 



296 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

depressions which, according to Behrens, promote the dis- 
tribution and adhesion of the lubricant. 

2. Cubical crystals of a tin-antimony alloy, harder than 
tin, but less hard and brittle than the above-mentioned 
copper-tin crystals, and than antimony. 

3. Nearly pure tin as eutectic alloy enclosing the pre- 
viously mentioned crystals. It is soft and plastic. Ac- 
cording to Charpy, this yielding property of the alloy is of 
importance for decreasing friction in case the axle or jour- 
nal is not accurately placed in the bearing. The latter 
adapts itself to the shape of the axle or journal, while a dis- 
proportionate influence is exerted upon the harder bronze 
bearings, the places which are more heavily loaded under- 
going greater friction and wear. 

When the bearings run hot the structure of the alloy be- 
comes more coarsely crystalline and its behavior is less 
favorable. 

The proportions by weight of the constituents of white 
metal vary very much. Tin is the most expensive of the 
metals entering into the compositions and, if for this reason, 
there should be the temptation of limiting its content and 
replacing it by lead, it must be considered that an alloy 
rich in lead is less hard than one rich in tin, and that an 
attempt to overcome this drawback by increasing the con- 
tent of antimony would cause increased brittleness and 
hence a tendency of the parts towards breaking. An in- 
crease in the content of copper above a certain, quite low, 
proportion — about 5 per cent. — would not only increase the 
brittleness but also the melting point, and hence be doubly 
injurious. 

For the white metal bearings of the Berlin Railroad 4 
lbs. of copper are first melted ; to this are added 8 lbs. of 
antimony and finally 24 lbs. of pure tin. The alloy is cast 
in plates 15 millimeters (0.59 inch) thick, and 40 lbs. of 
these are melted together with 40 lbs. of tin, overheating 
being as far as possible avoided, and again cast in plates, 



TIN ALLOYS. 297 

which are now ready for use. The alloy therefore con- 
tains about 83 per cent, tin, 1 1 per cent, antimony, and 
6 per cent, copper. It is of importance that the metals are 
as pure as possible, and especially contain no lead and 
zinc, and that larger quantities of metal should not be 
melted at one time. 

The bearing metal used by the Austrian Northwest Rail- 
road is of a similar composition, it containing tin 82 parts, 
antimony 12, copper 6. 

In the annexed table will be found the compositions of 
the more frequently used compounds for bearings. From 
the many receipts given, those have been selected which 
differ in regard to hardness and wear. As will be seen, 
iron is only used in rare cases, and the compositions con- 
taining lead find but little application, experience having 
shown" that the strength of the alloy is considerably de- 
creased by an addition of lead. 

In modern times bearings of soft metals are frequently 
replaced by such as consist of a metal whose hardness is 
almost equal to that of which the axle is made, phosphor- 
bronze being often used for this purpose, as it can be read- 
ily obtained so hard as to equal in that respect an axle of 
wrought or cast-steel. The metal is then used in a very 
thin layer, and serves, so to say, to fill out the small inter- 
spaces formed by wear on the axle and bearing, the latter 
consisting simply of an alloy of tin and lead. Such bear- 
ings, though very durable, are rather expensive, and can 
only be used for larger machines. For smaller machines 
bearings of white metal are generally preferred, and, if the 
axles are not too heavily loaded, do excellent service. 



298 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

White metals for bearings. 



German, for light loads. 



heavy loads. 



English, lor heavy loads, 
medium loads 

For mills 



For heavy axles 



For rapidly revolving 
axles 

Bearings of great hard- 
ness 

Bearings of great hard- 
ness 

Bearings (cheap) 



For railroads — 
Prussia 



Prussian and Hanover- 
ian railroads approve! 
under ihe heaviest pres- 
sure 

Bavaria, durable cold run- 
ning 

Austria government rail- j 
road 

Distributing slide valves. 

Railroad cars and larger 
machines 

Railroad cars, harder 
and stconger . . ; . 



{ 



Tin. 



85 
82 
80 
76 

3 
go 

86.81 

17-47 

76.7 

72.0 

15 



72.7 
38 

17 

5 

12 
2 
1-5 

qi 
85 
80 



go 

go 
83.2 



Parts. 



Anti- 
mony. 



10 
11 
12 

17 . 
1 
8 
7.62 

15-5 
26.0 

1 
1 

18.2 
6 

77 



82 
2 
i-5 

6 
10 
12 



7.62 



7 
11. 2 

16 
20 
12 



Zinc. 



76.14 



40 

5 
10 



47 



2 
88 
go 



Iron. 



Lead. 



70 



42 

5 
2 



60 
80 



Copper. 



5 
7 
8 

7 

1 
2 

5-57 

5.62 

7.8 

2.0 

3 



g.i 

1 



2.5 

4 
8 

7 

3 

5 



5-57 
2 • 

3 

5-6 



Babbitt 's anti-friction metal. — The original Babbitt metal 
is made by melting together 4 parts by weight of copper, 
12 of Banca tin, 8 of antimony regulus, and adding 12 
parts by weight of tin after fusion. The antimony is added 



TIN ALLOYS. 299 

to the first 'portion of tin, and the copper is introduced 
after taking the melting pot from the fire and before pour- 
ing into the mould. This alloy is called hardening. The 
" lining metal " consists of this hardening melted together 
with twice its weight of tin, thus making it consist of 3.7 
parts copper, 7.4 parts antimony and 88.9 parts tin. The 
bearing to be lined is cast with a shallow recess to receive 
the Babbitt metal. The portion to be tinned is washed 
with alcohol and powdered with sal ammoniac, and those 
surfaces which are not to receive the lining metal are to be 
covered with a clay wash. The portion to be tinned is then 
warmed sufficiently to volatilize a part of the sal ammoniac, 
and then tinned. The lining is next cast in between a 
former, which takes the place of the journal and the bear- 
ing. 

The German Admiralty specifications for Babbitt metal 
require 6 parts of tin to be combined with 1 part of copper, 
while other 6 parts of tin are to be alloyed with 1 part of 
antimony in a separate crucible. When both of these alloys 
are thoroughly liquified, they are brought together by 
pouring the one into the other, and mixing thoroughly. 
The alloy thus obtained is then poured into ingots, and 
remelted before being used for filling bushes, or interspac- 
ing slide valves. 

A small percentage of aluminium added to Babbitt metal 
gives very superior results over the ordinary Babbitt metal. 
It has been found that the influence of the aluminium upon 
the ordinary tin-antimony-copper Babbitt is to very consid- 
erably increase the durability and wearing properties of the 
alloy. 

The following Babbitt metal (plus aluminium) has been 
patented by Alexander W. Cadman (U. S. patent 464,147, 
December 1, 1891J: Antimony 7.3 parts, tin 89, copper 3.7, 
with from % to 2.5 parts aluminium. 

Babbitt's anti-friction metal was formerly largely used, 
but is now in many cases replaced by other alloys. 



300 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Kingston s metal, formerly much used for bearings, is 
made by melting 9 parts of copper with 24 of tin, remelt- 
ing, and adding 108 parts of tin, and finally 9 of mercury. 

A nti- friction alloys for hydraulic machijiery. — These al- 
loys are recommended for hydraulic machinery, or where 
ordinary alloys are liable to be corroded by chemical solu- 
tions. 

Parts. 

L II. HI. 

Tin 16 16 — 

Lead 3 — 16 

Antimony — 2 3 

Cupro-manganese 3 2 3 

Fenton s alloy for axle-boxes for locomotives and cars 
consists of zinc 80 parts, copper 5^ tin, 14^. This alloy 
may be recommended as regards cheapness and lightness. 
Experiments have shown that boxes of this alloy require 
but half as much oil for lubricating as others. The com- 
ponents can be melted in an ordinary iron pot, and the 
alloy is less difficult to work than brass. 

Dewra?ice s patent bearing for locomotives consists of 
copper 4 parts, tin 6, antimony 8. A locomotive of the 
Liverpool- Manchester railroad ran over 4500 miles without 
the bearing requiring repair. 

Alloy for anti-friction brasses. — Zinc 80 parts, tin 14, 
copper 5, nickel 1. 

Alloy for metal stopcocks which deposits ?io verdigris. — 
Zinc 72 parts, tin 21, copper 7. 

English white metal. — Tin 53 parts, lead 33, copper 2.4, 
zinc 1, antimony 10.6. The specific gravity of this alloy is 
7.22 and it melts at 290 F. 

A composition of white metal for machines recommended 
by Jacoby consists of copper 5 parts, tin 85, and antimony 10. 

Hoyle 's patent alloy for pivot bearings consists of tin 24 
parts, lead 22, and antimony 6. It is claimed to stand fric- 
tion without heating longer than any other composition. 



TIN ALLOYS. 3OI 

In the factory of H. Roose, of Breslau, the following 
alloys are used for white metal bearings. 

Parts. 



I. II. III. IV. 

Tin : 18 18 — — 

Lead 3 — 8 8 

Copper 1 1 1 — 

Antimony — 3 1 1 

C. B. Dudley, during many years' experience in the labor- 
atory of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, has analyzed 
many bearing metals under various names. Some of these 
analyses are given as follows :* 

Camelia metal. — Copper 70.20 per cent., tin 4.25, lead 
14.75, zmc > 10.20, iron 0.55. 

Anti-friction metal. — Tin 98.13, copper 1.60, iron, trace. 

White metal. — Lead 87.92, antimony, by difference, 12.08. 

Metal for lining car brasses. — Lead 84.87, antimony [_/ 
15.10, tin, trace. 

Salgee anti-friction metal. — Zinc 85.57, tin 9.91, copper 
4.01, lead 1. 15. 

Graphite-bearing metal. — Lead 67.73, tin 14.38, anti- 
mony 16.73, i ron n °t determined, graphite, none. 

Carbon bronze. — Copper 75.47, tin 9.72, lead 14.57, car " 
bon, possible trace. 

Cornish bronze. — Copper 77.83, tin 9.60, lead 12.40, zinc, 
traces of iron, phosphorus. 

Magnolia metal. — Lead 83.55, antimony, by difference, 
16.45, traces of iron, copper, zinc, and possibly bismuth. 

American anti-friction metal. — Lead 78.44, antimony 
19.60, zinc 0.98, iron 0.65. 

Tobin bronze. — Copper 59.00, zinc 38.40, tin 2.16, iron 
0.11, lead 0.31. 

Graney bronze. — Copper 75.80, lead 15.06, tin 9.20. 

*Jour. Franklin Institute, February, 1892. 



302 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Damascus bronze. — Copper 76.41, tin 10.60, lead 12.52. 

Manganese bronze. — Copper 90.52, tin 9.58, manganese, 
none. 

Ajax metal. — Copper 87.24, tin 10.98, lead J.2.J, phos- 
phorus or arsenic 0.37. 

Anti-friction metal. — Lead 88.32, antimony 11.93. 

Harrington bronze. — Copper 55.73, zinc 42.67, tin 0.97, 
iron 0.68. 

Car-box metal. — Lead 84.33, antimony 14.38, iron 0.61, 
zinc, trace. 

Ex. B. metal. — Copper 76.80, tin 8.00, lead 15.00, phos- 
phorus 0.20. 

Dudley's investigations finally resulted in finding an alloy, 
which wears 13 per cent, more slowly than phosphor 
bronze. This alloy consists of copper 76.80, tin 8.00, lead 
15. To obtain uniform castings 0.20 per cent, phosphorus 
is added, the alloy being prepared according to the follow- 
ing formula : Copper 105 lbs., phosphor bronze, new or 
broken, 60 lbs., tin 9^ lbs., lead 25^ lbs. 

The resulting alloy is the above-mentioned Ex. B. metal 
of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. 

The following tables of anti-friction metals which em- 
brace most of the alloys of proved excellence has been 
selected and compiled by Mr. John F. Buchanan * from the 
best authorities and practice in the engineering world. 

*Brassfounders' Alloys. London, 1905. 



TIN ALLOYS. 

Anti- Friction Metals. 



303 



Parts. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Ferro- 
zinc. 




1 


10 






. 1 




Babbitt's. 


4 


82 


— 


— 


14 


— 


" No. 2. 


1 


6 


— 


— 


2 


— 


\ " hardening. 


1 


6 


— 


— 


2 


— 


" 10 % tin added. 


4 ' 


6 


— 


— 


8 


— 


Dewrance's. 


5 


16 


7Q 


— . 


— 


— 


Fenton's. 




58^ 


39^ 


— 


2 


— 


Parson's. 


1 


18 


— 


— 


3 


— 


Roose's. 


1 


18 


— 


3 


— 


— 


" No. 2. 


— 


46 


— 


42 


12 


— 


Hoyle ; s. 


4 


19 


69 


5 


3 


— 


Ledebur's. 


lY* 


WA 


78 


— 


— 


— 


Kingston's 


4 


24 


80 


— 


— 


— 


Calendonian. 


4 


18 


90 


— 


— 


— 


" No. 2. 


2 


34 


58 


6 


— 


— 


American Car Journals. 


— 


5 


— 


79 


16 


— 


" " " 


8 


83 


— 


— 


9 


— 


Tandem. 


1 




— 


80 


13 


— 


Magnolium. 


1 


3 


— 


80 


16 


— 


" 


4 


88 


— 


— 


8 


— 


American railway. ^ 


8 


75 


— 


5 


12 


— 


Plastic metal. 


5 


85" 


— 




10 


— 


Admiralty metal. 


5 


82 


— 


— 


13 


— 


" " 


10 


83 


— 


— 


5 


2 


Plastic metal. 


— 




— 


80 


IS 


5 


Anti-attrition metal. 


— 


5 


— 


76 


16 


3 


" " No. 2. 


1 


94 


— 


— 


5 




Spinning metal. 


3 


go 


— 


— 


7 


— 


No. 2. 


2 


67 


30 


— 


1 


— 


White marine bronze. 


2 


42 


56 


— 


— 


— 


' " No. 2. 


8 


70 




10 


12 


— 


White navy bronze. 



3°4 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

A nti- Friction Metals — Contin ued. 



Parts. 






Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Yellow 
metal. 




4 


85 





44 


17 




White navy bronze, No. 


2. 


14 


60 


26 


— 




— 


White brass. 




6 


30 


60 


— 


4 


— 


" No. 2. 




10 


30 


60 


— 


— 


— 


" No. 3. 




10 


82 


— 


9 


9 


— 


" for patterns. 




4 


10 


85 


1 


— 


— 


" Salgee " metal. 






15 


— 


68 


17 


— 


"Graphite" metal. 




1 


40 


— 


47 


12 


— 


" Clyde " metal. 




2 


63 


— 


27 


8 


— 


" " No. 2. 






41 


— 


47 


9 


3 


Barrow metal. 




— 


43 


— 


46 


11 


— 


No. 2. 




12 


— 


— 


80 


8 


— 


Metallic packing. 




10 


— 


— 


80 


10 


— 


" " 




— 


10 


— 


70 


20 


— 


" French. 




10 


— 


— 


70 


20 


— 


Eccentrics. 




— 


10 


— 


60 


30 


— 


Piston rings. 




— 


30 


— 


60 


10 


— 


" "■ 




8 


74 


— 


— 


18 


— 


Hard plastic. 




6 


70 


— 


12 


12 


— 






— 


76 


— 


7 


17 


— 






3 


77 


— 


17 


3 


— 






— 


38 


— 


38 


24 


— 


Light machines. 




5 


40 


— 


45 


10 


— 


Heavy machines. 




8 


82 


— 





10 


— 


Axle boxes. 




6 


82 


— 


— 


12 


— 


Slide valves. 




6 


14 


80 


— 


— 


— 






— 


— 


47 


47 


6 


— 






4 


88 


— 


— 


8 


— 






— 


53 


— 


33 


10 


4 







TIN ALLOYS. 

A 11 ti-Frictio n Met a Is — Co n clu ded. 



305 









Parts. 






















» 


















_c 






u ■ 

h 










>> 

a 


J" § 


J3 




-G ^ 


(_, 











±i -o 






ftft 


<u 








g 


.t; Si 


"3 




« 9< 






d 


J 


as 


c 




s 




fu 


U 


H 


N 


J 


<J 


PQ 


s 




12 


_ 


55 




33 








Durable. 


4 


— 


84 


— 




10 




I 


"Ideal." 


— 


— 


17 


— 


58 


— 


25 


— 




— 


— 


34 


— 


48 


— 


18 


— 




— 


— 


37 


— 


34 


— 


19 


— 




— 


— 


30 


— 


48 


12 


10 


— 


f Fontainmoreau's 
\ bronze. 


— 


8 


— 


91 


1 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


18 


75 


4 


3 


— 


— 


/ Solid locomotive 
I bearings. 


— 


6 


17 


77 






— 


— 


— 


— 


48 


48 


— 


4 


— 


— 


" Anchor Brand." 


— 


11 


67 


— 


— 


22 


— 


— 




— 


• 5 


35 


60 


— 


— 


— 


— 




— 


— 


20 


— 


74 


6 


— 


— 




— 


1 


92 


— 




7 


— 


— 


" Titanium." 


— 


— 


74 


— 


— 


26 


— 


— 


f Hard face metre 
I valves. 


— 


— 


70 


— 


— 


30 


— 


— ^ 


— 


1 


68 


31/2 


% 




— 


~^ 


Very tough. 



20 



CHAPTER X. 

NICKEL ALLOYS. 

Although nickel in a pure state and as a distinct metal 
has been known only for a comparatively short time, in 
many localities it has for many years been indirectly used 
in the preparation of alloys. As far back as the seventeenth 
century, alloys were brought to Europe from China which 
were distinguished by quite a white, color and considerable 
hardness, and were known by various names. The actual 
Chinese name packfong — or packtong — of this alloy means 
white copper. Engstrom, in 1776, found it to consist of 
copper 40.5, zinc 44.3, and nickel 15.2, while the analysis 
of a specimen by Fyfe, in 1822, gave copper 41.0, zinc 2.65, 
nickel 8 and iron 2.7. The alloy is probably prepared by 
the Chinese in a manner similar to that in which brass was 
made in Europe before zinc in a metallic state was known, 
namely, by fusing copper with nickeliferous minerals. 

As far back as 1770, a similar white alloy, known as Suhl 
white copper, was prepared in Europe from white metallic 
grains obtained by crushing and washing old slag. Ac- 
cording to Brandes (1823) these grains consisted of copper 
88, nickel 8.75, iron, silica and alumina 1.75, and antimony 
and sulphur 0.75. By adding zinc and tin an alloy was ob- 
tained which was used for spurs and gun-mountings, and 
contained, according to Keferstein, copper 40.4, zinc 25.4, 
nickel 31.6, and tin 2.6. According to Frick, the alloy, 
whose content of nickel and the white color dependent 
thereon was established in 1823, contained copper 11 parts, 
zinc jyi, and nickel 1. In 1823, the society for promoting 
industry in Prussia offered a prize for the invention of an 
alloy which, while similar in appearance to silver, should 

f306) 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 307 

cost no more than i the price of the latter, and be suitable 
for culinary and table purposes. In 1824, such an alloy 
was prepared almost simultaneously by Henniger Bros, of 
Berlin, and Dr. Geitner, of Schneeberg. The latter called 
his alloy argentan, and prepared it at first from cobalt 
speiss (on an average with 49 nickel, 37 arsenic, 7 sulphur, 
besides iron and other metals), the result being that the 
composition of the alloy was not always constant. Hen- 
niger Bros, called their alloy " Neusilber " (new silver). 
Later on the alloy was prepared only from copper, zinc and 
metallic nickel, and it was soon introduced in France under 
the names of Maillechort (called thus after the first manu- 
facturers, Maillet and Chorier), argent a" Allemagne, 
argent allemand, argent neuf, and in England under the 
name German silver. 

In Vienna the alloy has been prepared since 1824, and 
was called alpaka, in Paris, alfenide, while the Chinese 
name packfong has been retained for inferior qualities 
poorer in nickel and containing other metals. Articles 
quite heavily silver-plated were introduced in 1840, and are 
knows as China silver or Christophle metal. 

According to other statements' the above-mentioned 
alloy, known as Maillechort, contains at the utmost 15 per 
cent, nickel ; and alloys which besides copper, zinc and 
nickel, contain other metals ftin, bismuth, antimony) to 
obtain greater fusibility and a more beautiful color, are 
known as silverine, argentan. packfong, etc. 

Nickel-copper alloys. — Nickel and copper unite in a wide 
range of proportions, the color of the alloys varying from 
copper-red to the blue-white of the nickel, according to the 
proportions of the respective metals. With a content of 
0.10 per cent, nickel the alloy is very ductile, of a light 
copper-red color, and moderate strength; with 0.15 per 
cent., the ductility is still considerable, while the color 
changes to a very pale red ; a content of 0.25 per cent, of 
nickel gives a nearly white alloy, and 0.30 per cent., a 



308 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

silver-white metal. The beautiful white color and consid- 
erable hardness imparted to copper by an addition of nickel 
make the alloy especially suitable for coinage, and it is used 
for this purpose in Switzerland, Belgium, and the United 
States. Both the Belgian and the United States coins now 
contain copper 75, nickel 25. The modern small coins of 
Switzerland, France, Sweden, Denmark, England and Bel- 
gium, contain a small addition of tin and zinc, and those of 
Italy only of tin. Chilian coins are composed, since 1872, 
of copper 70, nickel 20, zinc 10. 

The use of alloys consisting of copper and nickel alone 
is limited, those consisting of copper, nickel and zinc being 
more frequently employed. C. Morfit prepares a beautiful 
alloy of nickel and copper by mixing 33 parts of nickel and 
34 parts of copper with some borax, and fusing in a graphite 
crucible. To the melted mass he adds, with constant stir- 
ring, 33 parts more of copper, and casts the resulting alloy 
in small sticks. 

Berthier's alloy consists of copper 0.682 parts, nickel 
0.318. It is fusible, ductile, strong, bluish-white, slightly 
magnetic, and somewhat crystalline near the surface. 

Ingot-iron sheet, plated on both sides with an alloy of 
copper 80 and nickel 20, serves for the manufacture of 
cartridge shells. 

According to Vivian,* copper sheet with i to 3 per cent, 
nickel can be rolled hot and is stronger and tougher than 
sheet of copper or brass. An alloy with 50 to 60 per cent- 
nickel is used in watch factories, but otherwise serves only 
as a raw material for other alloys. t 

Kiinzel and Montefiore-Levi endeavored in vain to pro- 
duce a nickel-copper alloy not subject to liquation, and 
which, with the same or greater degree of hardness, would 
possess greater elasticity, more absolute strength and 
toughness than ordinary gun-metal. With a content of up 

* English Patent No. 13358, Sept. 15, 1888. 
t German patent No. 24188. 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 3O9 

to 10 per cent, nickel and 90 per cent, copper, these alloys 
did not possess the required hardness, while with over 
10 per cent, nickel the castings obtained were porous, 
because such combinations richer in nickel absorb in fusing 
large quantities of oxygen which becomes free in cooling. 
This is also the reason for the difficulty encountered in 
making nickel coins of copper 75, nickel 25, the alloy 
adopted by Belgium, Germany and the United States. By 
an addition of aluminium or phosphor-copper, dense cast- 
ings may be obtained in iron moulds. While large cavities 
formed in consequence of too high a temperature in casting 
or incorrect cooling generally yield useless castings, smaller 
cavities distributed throughout the entire mass disappear 
by rolling and stamping, and are of no disadvantage. 

Nickel-copper-zinc alloys. — These alloys form the mix- 
tures of metals known as German silver, packfong, argent 
neuf, etc. They may in a measure be considered as a 
brass, which, by an addition of nickel, has acquired a white 
color and considerable hardness. 

Generally speaking, German silver is superior to brass as 
regards hardness, strength and power of resisting chemical 
influences, the latter property making it especially valuable 
for certain purposes. In respect to its preparation it is, 
however, a very subtle mixture, and exceedingly small 
quantities of foreign metals exert a considerable influence 
upon the physical properties of the alloy. 

A content of. arsenic is most injurious in this respect. 
Even a very small percentage of it renders the alloy so 
brittle that it can scarcely be worked, and in a short time 
changes its color to brownish. 

A considerable portion of nickel is obtained from an ore 
known as copper-nickel or arsenical nickel, and from certain 
cobalt ores. Both ores, however, always contain consider- 
able quantities of arsenic, which it is impossible to remove 
entirely by the ordinary mode of smelting. This content 
of arsenic prevented for a long time the general introduc- 



310 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tion of nickel alloys in practice, and it became necessary 
entirely to abandon the method of preparing nickel by the 
dry method. It is now prepared by the wet method, in 
order to obtain protoxide of nickel entirely free from 
arsenic. This protoxide is then made into small cubes with 
starch-paste and heated at a very high temperature. By 
this treatment it is reduced to metal, the pure nickel re- 
maining behind in the form of a quite dense metallic sponge, 
which is, however, not fused, but simply slagged, nickel 
belonging to the metals very difficult to fuse. It may here 
be mentioned that for making alloys, it is really better to 
have the nickel, not as a compact fused mass, but in the 
form of a sponge, the latter combining with greater ease 
with the other metals. 

Nickel ores are also reduced by fluxing with chalk and' 
fluorspar, if arseniated, or by roasting, and then reducing 
with charcoal and sulphur to the state of sulphide. By 
double decomposition w r ith carbonate of soda the carbonate 
is then obtained, which is finally reduced with charcoal. 

Nickel and cobalt are closely allied as regards chem- 
ical properties and frequently occur together, so that the 
nickel found in commerce often contains a considerable 
quantity of cobalt, which passes into the alloy without, 
however, exerting an injurious influence. The same may 
be said of iron, also chemically closely allied to nickel, a 
content of it even increasing the tenacity and hardness of 
the nickel alloys and imparting to them a whiter color. 
But, on the other hand, it makes them more difficult to 
work, and renders them somewhat brittle. The genuine 
packfong, the original nickel alloy introduced from China, 
contains sometimes as much as three per cent, of iron. Euro- 
pean manufacturers also frequently add a small quantity of 
iron to German silver, if a high degree of hardness is re- 
quired for certain purposes. 

Some skill is, however, required to effect an actual com- 
bination of the alloy with the iron. By adding the iron 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 3II 

directly to the fused alloy it does not combine with it. and 
forms upon the surface of the fused mass a layer consisting 
of copper, nickel, and the added iron. An alloy of iron and 
copper dissolves, however, readily in the German silver, 
and an intimate union of all the metals can be easily effected 
by melting together equal portions of copper and steel, and 
adding pieces of this alloy to the fused German silver. 

An addition of silver to German silver does not affect its 
properties injuriously, nor an addition of a few per cent, of 
lead, which makes the alloy more fusible, somewhat cheaper, 
and improves its color. It is, however, remarkable that 
only a very small addition of lead renders the alloy quite 
brittle. 

By an addition of tin, German silver acquires considerable 
hardness and a beautiful sound. An alloy of this kind con- 
taining a suitable quantity of tin could be used as specu- 
lum-metal and bell-metal. But the previously given com- 
positions for these purposes being very suitable and much 
cheaper, tin alloys containing nickel are not used in practice. 

As regards the properties of nickel alloys they may be 
summed up as follows : The color of the mixture is always 
white, the degree of whiteness depending on the quantity 
of the separate metals used in the respective composition. 
The most beautiful color is shown by an alloy of 4 parts of 
copper and 3 of nickel, but unfortunately this alloy is 
scarcely available for practical purposes, it being extremely 
difficult to fuse, and so hard that it can scarcely be worked. 
An alloy containing 75 parts of copper and 25 of nickel 
does no longer show a pure white color, but one with a 
yellowish tinge, which is clearly perceptible by holding a 
polished piece of such an alloy alongside a piece of silver. 
Hence the better qualities of German silver must in all 
cases contain more than one-fourth of nickel. In using a 
small quantity of nickel it has been attempted to remove 
the yellowish color by an addition of silver; but without 
success. The Sw r iss coins are made of such an alloy, and, 
as is well known, show a decidedly yellowish cast. 



312 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

In most factories the articles made of German silver are 
plated with silver by the electric current, and exhibit the 
color of chemically pure silver, which they retain for a 
shorter or longer time according to the thickness of the 
deposit. 

The mechanical manipulation of German silver is attended 
with some difficulties, the plates, which for the purpose of 
preparing sheet must be obtained by casting, being highly 
crystalline and readily cracking under the hammer. 

Generally small plates about y% to 12 inches long, 4%^ 
to y% inches wide, and % inch thick are prepared by cast- 
ing. These plates are slightly rolled and hammered, being 
annealed after each mechanical manipulation. By this treat- 
ment they gradually lose the crystalline structure, and 
when this has entirely disappeared, can be further worked 
with ease, and rolled and stamped into any desired form, 
most articles (spoons, forks, etc.) being prepared by the 
latter method. Like alloys of the precious metals, German 
silver has the property of retaining its metallic color and 
luster on being brought in contact with air and water, and 
it is not effected even by dilute acids such as are frequently 
found in food (lactic acid, acetic acid, etc.). 

Nickel alloys possessing strong electric properties are 
used in the manufacture of positive elements for thermo- 
electric piles, they being especially adapted for the purpose 
on account of their high melting points. A thermo-electric 
pile, one portion of which consists of a nickel alloy, can be 
heated to a strong red heat without fear of the alloy melting. 

German Stiver or Argentan . 

Alloys of nickel, copper and zinc are recognized in com- 
merce under all sorts of names, but in order to avoid con- 
fusion we will retain the term German silver or argentan, 
which is most in use. Factories which produce this alloy 
are found in almost all large cities, though Germany and 
England are the chief seats of the industry. The composi- 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 3I3 

tion of the alloys used by the various factories differs con- 
siderably, as may be seen from the following figures : — 

Copper 50 to 66 parts. 

Zinc 19 to 31 parts. 

Nickel 13 to 18 parts. 

For the production of spoons, forks, cups, candlesticks, 
etc., alloys consisting of copper 50 parts, nickel 25 and zinc 
25 are most suitable, as they show a beautiful white-blue 
color which does not tarnish. 

German silver is sometimes so brittle that a spoon allowed 
to fall upon the floor will break, this fragility being due, of 
course, to an incorrect composition. It is impossible to 
give a definite composition for German silver, inasmuch as 
it varies according to the manipulation the article manu- 
factured from the alloy is to undergo. The following table 
of analyses of different kinds of German silver shows how 
the qualities of the alloys change with the percentage of 
metals contained in them. Immaterial admixtures of for- 
eign metals have been omitted in the compilation, only 
those belonging to the composition of the alloy being given : 



German silver. 



English 



German 





Parts. 




Copper. 


Zinc. 


Nickel. 


8 


3-5 


4 


8 


3-5 


6 


8 


6.5 


3 


52 


26 


22 


59 


30 


11 


63 


3i 


6 



Quality. 



Finest quality. 

Very beautiful, but very 

refractory. 
Ordinary, readily fusible. 
Prime quality. 
Second quality. 
Third quality. 



The following analyses give interesting particulars con- 
cerning various kinds of alloys for German silver: 



314 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



German silver. 



French for sheet 

Vienna 

Berlin 



English 



Chinese 



For casting 



Sheffield- 
Common (yellow) 

Silver-white 

Electrum (bluish) 

Hard (can be worked cold) . 
Fricke's — 

Bluish-yellow (hard) 

Pale yellow (ductile) 

Silvery (hard) 

" (harder) 

Common formula 



Parts. 



Copper. 



SO 
50 
58. 
So 

55. 
60 

54 
55. 
63. 
62. 
62. 

57- 
26. 

43- 
45 
40 
48 

54 
58 
57- 
57- 



Zinc. 



59-30 
55-20 
5i-6o 
45-70 

55-50 
62.50 
50.00 
59.00 
55-00 



3i-3 
30 

25 

25 

22 

20 

28 

29.1 

17.01 

22.15 

26.05 

25 

36.8 

40.6 

36.9 

25-4 

24-3 

21.8 

19.4 

27.1 
20.0 

25.90 
24.IO 
22.60 
20.00 

39.00 
31.20 
18.80 
30.00 
25.00 



Nickel. Lead. 



18.7 

20 

16.7 

25 

22 

20 

18 

17-5 

19-13 

15-05 

10.85 

13 

36.8 

15-6 

17.9 

31-6 

24.3 

21.8 

19-4 

14-3 
20.0 

14.80 
20.70 
25.80 
31-30 

5-50 

6.30 

31.20 

10.00 

20.00 



2.9 
1.9 
2.9 
0.8 

3-o 



Iron. 



3-00 



2.60 






Many varieties of German silver contain different quanti- 
ties of iron, manganese, tin, or very frequently lead, to 
change the qualities of the alloy or to cheapen it. All these 
additions, however, exert rather an injurious than beneficial 
influence, and especially lessen the power of resistance 
against the action of dilute acids, which is one of the most 
valuable properties of this alloy. 

An addition of lead makes German silver more fusible ; 
one of tin acts in a certain sense as in bronze, making the 
alloy denser and more sonorous, and causing it to take a 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 315 

better polish. An addition of iron or manganese increases 
the white color of the alloy, but it becomes at the same time 
more refractory and inclines towards brittleness. 

Substitutes for German Silver. — There are a number of 
directions for the preparation of alloys to be used as sub- 
stitutes for German silver, but none of them has succeeded 
in entirely replacing the latter, a proof that it possesses ad- 
vantages not belonging to the others. 

Nickel-bronze. — This alloy is prepared by fusing highly 
purified (99.5 per cent.) nickel with copper, tin and zinc, so 
that the resulting bronze contains 20 per cent, nickel. It 
is of a light color and possesses great strength. 

' According to Gamier, nickel containing phosphorus al- 
loyed with copper, zinc, and iron gave better results than 
such alloys without copper. 

Bismnth-bronse. — Webster's bismuth-bronze is made in 
various proportions. According to the statement of its 
discoverer its composition and qualities are as follows : 
For a hard alloy take 1 part of bismuth and 16 of tin, both 
by weight, and, having melted them, mix them thoroughly. 
For a hard bismuth-bronze take 69 parts of copper, 21 of 
spelter, 9 of nickel, and 1 of the above hard alloy of bismuth 
and tin. This bismuth-bronze is a hard, tough, sonorous, 
metallic alloy, which is proposed for use in the manufacture 
of screw-propeller blades, shafts, tubes and other appliances 
employed partially or constantly in sea-water. In conse- 
quence of its toughness it is thought to be well suited for 
telegraph wires and similar purposes where much stress is 
borne by the wires. From its sonorous quality it is well 
adapted for piano wires. For domestic utensils and articles 
exposed to atmospheric influences, use bismuth 1 part, alum- 
inium 1, and tin 15, melted together to form the separate 
or preliminary alloy, which is added in the proportion of 1 
per cent, to the above-described alloy of copper, spelter, 
and nickel. This bronze forms a bright and hard alloy 
suited for the manufacture of utensils or articles exposed to 
oxidation. 



316 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Manganese German Silver. — As a substitute for German 
silver, Boucelin and Ponsard recommend an alloy of copper 
60, zinc 15 and ferro-manganese with 70 to 80 per cent, 
manganese, 40. For bearings, cocks and valves : Copper 
60, zinc 10 and ferro-manganese with 60 per cent, mangan- 
ese, 40. According to Ledebur, the collection of the 
Freiberg School of Mines contains a moderately ductile 
sheet of a pale yellow color composed of copper 60.95, 
manganese 7.95, zinc 29.93 and iron 1.13, and another sheet 
of a paler, but still perceptible yellow color, composed of 
copper 63.16, manganese 4.48, zinc 26.11, iron 0.74, and 
nickel 3.67. 

The following composition is > recommended as being 
readily cast, and hence very suitable for articles of art. 

Copper 52 to 50 

Nickel :'.., 17 to 15 

Zinc 5 to 10 

Manganese 1 to 5 

Phosphorus — — 

Copper with 15 per cent, phosphorus 3 to 5 

Aphtit. — The alloy known by this name is composed of : 
Iron 66, nickel 23, tungsten 4, copper 5. 

Arguzoid. — Copper 55.78, zinc 23.198, nickel 13.046, tin 
4.035, lead 3.544. This alloy is silver-white, almost ductile, 
and suitable for articles of art. 

Berro-German silver prepared by the Societe anonyme Le 
Ferro-Nickel of Paris consists of iron, nickel and copper 
with or without zinc. 

A silver-like alloy, which can be worked like German 
silver, is composed of copper, 70; nickel, 20; zinc, $}4 ; 
cadmium, 4^2. 

Platinoid. — This alloy, invented by H. Martino, is a kind 
of German silver with an addition of 1 to 2 per cent, of 
tungsten. The latter, in the form of phosphor-tungsten, is 
first melted together with a certain quantity of copper, the 
nickel is next added, then the zinc, and finally the remainder 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 



317 



of the copper. In order to remove the phosphorus and a 
portion of the tungsten, both of which separate as dross, 
the resulting compound is several times remelted. Finally 
an alloy of a beautiful white color is obtained, which, when 
polished, closely resembles silver, and retains its luster for 
a long time. Platinoid has the properties of German silver 
in a pre-eminent degree. It shows great resistance, which 
changes but little with the temperature, and is about 1 >^ 
times greater than that of German silver. To determine 
the dependence of the resistance on the temperature, plati- 
noid wire was wound upon a bobbin provided with a 
thread, and uniformly heated in an oil-bath. The results of 
the experiments are given in the following table, in which 
the resistance at o° C. is placed = 1. 



Temperature. 


Resistance. 


Temperature. 


Resistance. 


o°C 

10 


1. 0000 
1.0024 
1 .0044 
1.0066 
1.0075 
1.0097 


6o°C 

70 .... 


1. 0126 
1. 0134 
1. 0166 


20 


80 


30 


90 


1. 0188 


4 j 


roo 


1.0209 


So 





This shows an average increase of resistance of 0.0209 for 
i° C. between o° and ioo° C. ; another experiment with 
wire gave an average of 0.022 for i° C. According to ex- 
periments by Matthiessen, and the more recent ones, by 
Erno, the increase in the resistance of copper is 0.38 per 
cent., and of German silver 0.044 P er cent. Hence platinoid 
is in this respect far superior to other wire in use. 

Manganin. Copper, 83; nickel, 4; manganese, 13. 

Diejtett's German silver. This alloy is said to possess a 
beautiful white color and the density and toughness of 
tombac. It is composed of copper, 4, zinc, 2.5, lead, 0.75, 
nickel, 0.5 and tin, 0.125. 



3l8 THE METALLIC. ALLOYS. 

Pirscli s patented German silver is composed of 











Anti- 


Alumin- 




Copper. 


Nickel. 


Cobalt. 


Zinc. 


mony. 


ium. 


Iron 


79-50 


16.00 


1. 00 


1. 00 


1. 00 


0.50 


1. 00 


75-00 


16.00 


2.00 


2.25 


2-75 


0.50 


1.50 


71.00 


16.50 


1-25 


7-50 


2.50 


— 


1-25 



Alfenide, Argiroide, and allied alloys. — The alloys 
brought into commerce under these and many other names 
consist in most cases of a mixture of metals closely resemb- 
ling German silver, but they are always electro-plated with 
pure silver, the thickness of the plating depending on the 
price of the respective articles. In many cases the com- 
position used in the manufacture of these articles is a very 
ordinary quality of German silver, which by itself would 
present a mean appearance, but is hid from the buyer by 
the silver plating. 

In recent times alloys have been frequently recommended 
which differ from the actual nickel alloys as represented by 
German silver, in containing tin and aluminium, which 
makes them more fusible and more easily worked than 
German silver. Thus far these alloys have not been gen- 
erally introduced in practice, and besides they are dearer 
than German silver. 

•According to Rochet, alfenide is composed of 59.1 parts 
of copper, 30.2 of zinc, 9.7 of nickel, and 1.0 of iron. Ac- 
cording to this, it is actually nothing but an ordinary 
quality of German silver. It is said to be well adapted for 
spoons, forks, and other articles with a smooth surface 
which are to be plated with silver, but it does not answer 
so well for decorated pieces. 

Toucas's alloy is composed of copper 5 parts, nickel 4, 
antimony, tin, lead, zinc, and iron, of each 1. The metals 
are melted together in a crucible. This alloy has the ad- 
vantage of being more complex, even if it does not possess 
other qualities, than similar compounds. According to the 
inventor, it has nearly the color of silver, may be worked like 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 319 

it, and is laminated by the ordinary processes. It is re- 
sisting, malleable, suspectible of a fine polish, with a luster 
of platinum, and can be perfectly silvered. For objects 
which are to be spun, hammered, or chased, the above 
alloy is very convenient, but for cast and adjusted pieces it 
is preferable to increase the proportion of zinc in order to 
increase the fluidity of the metal. This compound is em- 
ployed for ornaments, jewelry, etc. 

According to Trabuk, of Nimes, a beautiful white alloy, 
which resists the action of vegetable acids, and may serve 
as a substitute for German silver, is obtained by melting 
together 875 parts of tin, 55 of nickel, 50 of antimony, and 
20 of bismuth. Into a crucible of suitable size introduce 
first % of the tin and all the nickel, antimony and bismuth, 
and after covering these metals with the second third of 
tin, cover the whole with a layer of charcoal powder to 
prevent oxidation. The lid is then placed upon the crucible 
and the latter heated to a bright red heat. After ascertain- 
ing by stirring with a red-hot iron rod that all the nickel 
is fused, the last third of the tin is added, without, however, 
removing the layer of charcoal. The mass is then stirred 
until it is perfectly homogeneous, and cast into ingots. 

The annexed table gives a number of nickel alloys ar- 
ranged according to their composition : 



320 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



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1 1 1 1 1 1 II II II 1 1 


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French Maillechort, according to Levoir. 
French Maillechort, according to Levoir. 
French Maillechort, according to Levoir. 
French Maillechort, according to Levoir. 
French German silver, according to 

d'Arcet 

French German silver, according to 

Chaval 


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Vienna German silver: 

Copper 2, zinc i, nickel i, for forks 
and spoons, not very white, but hard 
and does not tarnish 


Copper 5, zinc 2, nickel 2, for forks and 
knives; resembles silver 0.750 fine. . . 

Copper 3, zinc 1, nickel 1, resembles 
silver 0.750 fine; readily rolled and 
worked 


Spoon metal, according to Schubarth. . . . 

English Packfong, according to Eng- 

strom 




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NICKEL ALLOYS. 



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THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



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NICKEL ALLOYS. 



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324 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Sperry* gives the following analyses of nickel alloys. 



Per cent. 



Berlin alloys: 

Richest 

Medium 

Poorest 

French alloys: 
Tableware • ■ 



Maillechort 

Copper-nickel alloy of 
the Soc. de Nickel, 
Paris 

Copper-nickel of Wig- 
gins & Co., Birming- 
ham 

Christofle's alloy 

Austrian alloys: 

Tableware 



Sheffield, England, alloys: 

White silver 

Electrum 

Hard alloy 

English 

" elastic 

Chinese packfong 

Vivian's copper alloy ••• 
American alloys: 

Alloy for casting 

Bearing alloy 

Explosive bullet-shell • ■ 



Copper. 


Nickel. 


Zinc. 


Iron. 


Cobalt. 


52.00 


22.00 


26.00 






59.00 


11.00 


30.00 


— 


— 


63.00 


6.00 


31-00 


— 


— 


50.00 


18.70 


31.30 


— 


— 


50.00 


20.00 


30.00 


— 


— 


65.40 


16.80 


13.40 


3-40 


— 


48.74 


49.26 


S 0.089 


0.610 


Si 0.186 


47.68 


49-87 


S 0.041 


1.228 


Si 0.136 


50.00 


50.00 


— 


— 


— 


50.00 


25.00 


25.00 


— 


— 


55 .60 


22.20 


22.20 


— ■ 


— 


60.00 


20.00 


20.00 


— 


— 


55-20 


20.70 


24.10 


— 


— 


51.60 


25.80 


22.60 


— 


— 


45-70 


31-30 


20.00 


— 


— 


60.00 


18.80 


17.38 


— 


3.40 


57.00 


15.00 


25.00 


— 


3.00 


40.40 


31.60 


25.40 


2.00 


— 


48.49 


50.09 


— 


0.826 


Si 0.303 


52.50 


17.70 


28.80 


— 


— 


50.00 


25.00 


25.00 


— 


— 


75-5o 


24 10 


~ 


0.40 


~ 



Manufacture of German Silver on a Large Scale. 

In the manufacture of German silver, the purity of the 
metal used is of greater importance than in the preparation 
of any of the alloys previously described. The nickel found 
at present in commerce is generally sufficiently pure to be 
used without further preparation, the chief contamination 

transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Florida 
Meeting, March, 1895. 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 325 

being cobalt, which, as previously mentioned, exerts little 
influence upon the properties of the alloy. Copper is fre- 
quently contaminated with iron, lead, arsenic, and anti- 
mony, and, in such case, is only fit for the preparation of 
German silver of second or third quality. Zinc also con- 
tains certain contaminations injurious to the qualities of 
the alloy. 

The manufacture of German silver is generally carried on 
according to two methods which, from the countries where 
they have been perfected, are termed respectively the 
English and the Gerrnan process. Both yield German 
silver of excellent quality, and, as will be seen from the de- 
scriptions of the two methods, differ chiefly in the manner 
in which the various operations in melting down the alloys 
are executed. 

German process. — The alloy is prepared as follows : The 
zinc and nickel to be used for a certain quantity of copper 
are divided into three equal portions. Now place upon 
the bottom of a graphite crucible, capable of holding at 
the utmost 22 pounds of the alloy, a layer of copper, upon 
this a layer of zinc and nickel, upon this again a layer of 
copper, and continue in this manner until all the copper is 
in the crucible, retaining, however, one-third each of the 
nickel, and zinc. 

* The contents of the crucible are now covered with a 
layer of charcoal powder to prevent volatilization and oxi- 
dation of zinc, and melted down as quickly as possible in a 
wind-furnace connected with a high chimney, quite a high 
temperature being required for the fusion of the alloy. 

When the contents of the crucible are supposed to be 
liquefied, they are examined by dipping in an iron rod, and, 
if the whole is found to be thoroughly melted, an intimate 
mixture of the metals is effected by vigorous stirring with 
the rod. 

The zinc and nickel retained are now added in portions 
to the melted contents of the crucible, the mass being vigor- 



326 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ously stirred after each addition, and a sharp fire kept up to 
prevent the alloy from cooling off too much by the newly- 
introduced metals. After the introduction of the last por- 
tion, an additional piece of zinc is generally thrown into the 
crucible to compensate for the loss of zinc by volatilization, 
and besides experience has shown that a small excess of 
zinc renders the alloy more thinly-fluid, which materially 
facilitates the work in the subsequent casting. If the alloy 
is to be rolled out into thin sheets, it is recommended to 
keep the finished alloy liquid for some time longer before 
proceeding to casting. In doing this, however, it is neces- 
sary constantly to keep the surface of the melted metal 
covered with charcoal to prevent volatilization of zinc. 

The casting of the alloy is effected in various ways. It is 
either 'at once cast into plates, which are subsequently rolled 
out into sheets, or into very thin sticks, which after cooling 
are remelted and finally cast into plates. On account of the 
greater consumption of fuel and labor, the last method is 
somewhat more expensive than direct casting, but it has the 
advantage of the alloy becoming more homogeneous by re- 
melting, and besides it can be worked with greater ease. 
Only with the use of very pure metals is it advisable to cast 
the alloy at once into plates. 

Considerable skill is required for casting the alloy, it 
being necessary to run it into the moulds at as high a 
temperature as possible and in an uninterrupted stream. 
An interruption of the stream can be at once detected by 
the fact that the plate is not uniform. 

The moulds used in casting plates consist of two iron 
plates, one plain and the other with a ledge corresponding 
to the thickness of the plate to be cast, which varies from 
0.50 to 0.59 inch. On account of the great contraction of 
the alloy in solidifying, the distance between the two plates 
must be somewhat greater. In order to obtain castings of 
greater homogeneousness, it is recommended to run the 
melted metals from below into the moulds. This is effected 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 327 

by providing the lower plate with a lip or mouth-piece, in 
which is placed a clay-funnel connected with a pipe rising 
somewhat above the mould. After the plates are tightly 
screwed together, the mould is highly heated and the casting 
proceeded with. The metal is heated as intensely as pos- 
sible, and after being freed from all contaminations floating 
on the surface is allowed to run in a steady, thin stream 
into the mould. When the metal appears on the upper end 
of the mould and the funnel remains filled, the casting is 
finished. After allowing the filled mould to stand quietly 
for about half an hour, the solidified plate is removed. To 
prevent the alloy from adhering to the sides of the mould, 
these are previously to casting coated with a layer of fine 
lamp-black. The principal difficulty in casting plates of 
German silver is to obtain them perfectly homogeneous and 
free from blow-holes, which is best effected by bringing' 
the melted metal as hot as possible into the mould. On 
account of the difficulty of executing the casting so quickly 
that the contents of the crucible do not cool off, it is 
recommended to fill only one mould at a time, and replace 
the crucible in the furnace in order to keep the contents at 
the highest temperature possible. 

The plates of German silver thus obtained have to be care- 
fully examined as to whether they are perfectly homogene- 
ous. Imperfect plates must be thrown out and remelted. 
The perfect plates are rolled out into sheets from which the 
articles to be manufactured are punched out and then further 
worked. 

English process. — The English method of preparing the 
alloy differs somewhat from the German, especially in the 
manner in which the metals are melted together, no portion 
of the zinc or nickel being retained, but the entire quantity 
of metal is melted at one time. Good graphite crucibles 
are used, which are placed in a furnace capable of produc- 
ing a high temperature. The metals are used in the form 
of small pieces. The charge of each crucible generally con- 



328 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

sists of 8% pounds of tin, }4 pound of zinc, and, according 
to the quality of the alloy to be produced, 2 to 3 pounds of 
nickel. The metals are intimately mixed and quickly intro- 
duced into the red-hot crucibles. Their surface is immedi- 
ately covered with a thick layer of coal-dust and the mixture 
fused as quickly as possible. After ascertaining by stirring 
with an iron rod that the mass is liquefied, a previously 
prepared alloy of 1 part by weight of zinc and j4 part of 
copper is added, the quantity for the above charge ranging 
from if and 2 pounds. When this alloy is melted and the 
entire contents of the crucible form a homogeneous whole, 
2 pounds of zinc are finally added. The mass, being kept 
constantly covered with coal-dust, is now heated as strongly 
as possible, and when thinly-fluid a sample is taken to test 
its qualities. 

The alloy always contains a certain amount of oxide, and, 
if a large quantity of it is present, the casting will be badly 
blown. To ascertain how the alloy will act in casting, a 
test casting is made, and, if the fracture of this shows blow- 
holes, the oxides will have to be reduced. This is effected 
by throwing pitch into a stoneware pipe pushed through 
the contents of the crucible to the bottom. The products 
of destructive distillation evolved from the pitch effect a re- 
duction of the oxides, which is accelerated by stirring coal- 
dust into the melted metal. When the reduction of oxides 
is supposed to be finished, a strong heat is given, and, after 
the coal mechanically mixed with the alloy has collected 
upon the surface, the purified metal is cast in a manner 
similar to that described under the German process. In- 
stead of coating the moulds with lamp-black alone, many 
manufacturers use a mixture of lamp-black and oil of turpen- 
tine. Moulds thus treated must, however, be sharply dried 
to volatilize the oil of turpentine, as otherwise the vapors 
evolved from the oil of turpentine in casting might readily 
cause the formation of blow-holes. 

The casting of the plates finishes the chemical portion 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 329 

of the process, and the perfect plates are mechanically 
worked in the same manner as indicated under the German 
process. Articles of German silver have to be soldered 
with a solder whose color approaches as nearly as possible 
that of the alloy. An excellent composition for this pur- 
pose is prepared by melting 5 to 6 parts of German silver 
together with 4 parts of zinc. It is, however, better 
directly to prepare the alloy which is to serve as solder by 
melting together copper 35 parts, zinc 57, and nickel 8. 

The alloy is prepared in the same manner as German 
silver and, after being cast in thin plates, pulverized while 
hot. If the alloy is too tough and can only be pulverized 
with difficulty, it contains too little zinc, while too great 
brittleness indicates too small a quantity of nickel. In both 
cases the alloy must be improved by remelting and adding 
the necessary quantity of the respective metals. 

The alloys of German silver are principally used for the 
manufacture of tableware, as cups, dishes, forks, spoons, 
etc., but on account of their beautiful color, and solidity, 
they are also used for articles of art, and are more and 
more substituted for genuine silver. For fine mechanical 
work German silver surpasses all other alloys, it having, 
besides considerable strength and power of resistance, the 
valuable property of not changing its appearance in con- 
tact with dry air, and of expanding but little on heating. 

Manufacture of German silver sheet. The crystalline 
plates obtained by casting are very gradually reduced by 
rolling. Whilst being passed through the rolls, they are 
repeatedly heated to a cherry-brown heat in a heating fur- 
nace for direct firing, Figs. 29 and 30, or in a muffle fur- 
nace, Figs. 31 and 32, and allowed to cool completely, 
otherwise edge-cracks will be formed. After the destruc- 
tion of the crystalline structure German silver can be 
worked like brass. Very thin sheet, -£$ to - 6 -V millimeter 
thick, is called German silver foil or packfotig foil. 

The sheets resting upon a carriage with perforated 



33° 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



bottom, running upon rails, are introduced into the heating 
furnace, Figs. 29 and 30, through an opening the entire 

Fig. 29.- 




Fig. 30. 




NICKEL ALLOYS. 



331 



width of the furnace, which can be closed by a cast-iron 
door. When taken from the furnace the sheets are placed 
upon a carriage pushed close up to the furnace, the upper 
edge just level with the bottom of the hearth. 

Muffle furnaces, Figs 31 and 32, area protection against 

Fig. 31. 




the deposit of dust, and allow of slower heating, but their 
effect is less favorable on account of their yielding the heat 
with greater difficulty. The cast iron muffle resting upon 
a fire-brick arch is washed by the gases of combustion as- 
cending from the grate through the flues a and b. The 



332 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



gases then pass into the chimney. The channels d serve 
for the introduction of air ; c are the supports of the arch. 




Nickel-zinc alloy. — Powdered nickel i part and powdered 
zinc 2 parts, when heated, yield an alloy of a blackish-violet 
powder and brittle metallic globules. A powder of zinc 90 
parts and nickel 10 serves in painting, and for silver printing. 

Nickel-tin alloy. — Such an alloy is obtained by heating 
10 to 18 ozs. of nickel to a red heat, adding 2 lbs. of tin 
heated to 302 F., bringing the combined metals into 217 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 



333 



lbs. of tin heated to 302 F., and stirring. The alloy is 
hard and brittle. 

Nickel-aluminium alloy. — An alloy of nickel 20 parts and 
aluminium 8 parts gives threads suitable for laces, etc. 

Silver-bronze. — This term has been applied to an alloy 
for bars, sheet and wire. It is composed of manganese 18 
parts, aluminium 1.20, silicon 5.00, zinc 13, and copper 
67.50. It electrical resistance is claimed to be greater than 
that of German silver. 

Nickel-aluminium alloys. — Solbisky prepares the follow- 
ing alloys which are distinguished by hardness, resistance 
to pressure and ductility. An addition of cadmium makes 
them elastic. 



Parts. 


Hardness 


Aluminium. 


Nickel. 

1 
1 

0-5 


Tin. 


Copper. 


Iron = 1000. 


90 
95 
96.5 




5 
1 

0.5 


4 
3 

2.5 


580 
442 
380 



Rosein. This alloy is used for jewelry. It is composed 
of nickel 40 parts, silver 10, aluminium 30, and tin 10. 

Martino 's hard alloys for drilling and cutting tools. Pig 
iron 17.25 parts, ferro-manganese 3, chromium 1.5, tung- 
sten 5.25, aluminium 1.25, nickel 0.5, copper 0.75, wrought 
iron 70.5; or, pig iron 17.25 parts, ferro-manganese 4.5, 
chromium 2, tungsten 7.5, aluminium 2, nickel 0.75, copper 
1, wrought iron 65. 

Nickel-steel. In 1889, M. Henry Schneider, of Creuzot, 
France, took out two patents for the manufacture of alloys 
of cast iron and nickel, and steel and nickel respectively.* 

In the specifications of the first patent it is stated that it 



k V> . S. Patents 415,657 and 415,655, Nov. 19, li 



334 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

is very difficult to incorporate nickel with iron and steel, 
particularly when it is attempted to produce these alloys on 
a commercial scale. To overcome this difficulty, a pre- 
liminary product is made of cast iron and nickel in a cruci- 
ble, cupola, or open-hearth furnace. This product or alloy, 
while especially useful for the manufacture of iron and 
nickel and steel and nickel alloys, may be used as castings 
for a variety of purposes. 

" In the manufacture of this alloy of cast-iron and nickel, 
a suitable furnace is charged with nickel scrap and ordinary 
cast or pig-iron, with carbonaceous matter ; or the nickel 
may be in the form of nickelized compounds or coke. The 
operation is best carried on in a reverberatory furnace 
under a layer of anthracite, to avoid oxidation. 

"The resulting alloy contains from five to thirty per 
cent, nickel, and is remarkable for its great elasticity and 
strength — properties which may be still further developed 
by chilling or tempering in the usual manner. 

"This alloy of cast-iron and nickel, containing (say) 
thirty per cent, of nickel, sixty-three per cent, of iron, three 
per cent, of carbon, and two of manganese and silicon, 
is then charged on the bed of an open-hearth furnace, with 
the iron or scrap used in the ordinary methods of making 
open-hearth steel, care being taken to protect the bath 
from oxidation by means of a layer of slag or cinder. A 
steel, containing about five per cent, of nickel, is thereby 
obtained. Precautions, however, must always be taken to 
prevent red-shortness in the metal before the final intro- 
duction of the recarbonizing and maganiferous silico-spiegel 
iron or ferro- manganese. 

" Nickel-steel of this kind, containing five per cent, of 
nickel is especially adapted or suitable for use in the con- 
struction of ordnance, armor plate, gun-barrels, projectiles 
and other articles employed for military or other like pur- 
poses, or the manufacture of commercial sheets, bars, etc. 

"The percentages of carbon, silicon and manganese can 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 335 

be regulated according to the degree of hardness required, 
but in all cases, in order to obtain the best results possible, 
the product must invariably be tempered in an oil or other 
bath."* 

Marbeau s nickelo-spiegel is made by a patented process, 
which consists in the reduction of the ores of nickel, iron 
and manganese at the same time and in one operation. 
The following proportions are stated as affording good re- 
sults, f 

Nickel ore or matt, contafning ten per cent, of nickel 2 tons 
Manganese ore, containing ten per cent, manganese 

and forty per cent, iron 1 ton 

Iron ore, containing fifty per cent, iron 12 cwt. 

An alloy of nickel and iron having thus been obtained, 
there appears to be but little difficulty in working this nickel- 
iron into a nickel-steel by means of an open-hearth furnace. 

Ferro-nickel and nickel-steel alloys for technical purposes 
are produced by adding metallic nickel to ingot-iron in a 
crucible, converter, or reverberatory furnace, or by melt- 
ing in a blast-furnace oxide ores of iron, nickel and man- 
ganese. The SociHe anonyme le Ferro- Nickel of Paris, 
prepares in this manner an alloy of 20 per cent, nickel, 5 
per cent, manganese, 72 per cent, iron, 2.5 to 3 per cent, 
carbon, and 0.5 per cent, phosphorus, sulphur and silicon. % 

For the preparation on a large scale of 5 per cent, nickel- 
iron, ferro-nickel containing 25 per cent, of nickel is melted 
in a Martin furnace, ingot-iron is next added, then man- 
ganese and finally, previous to tapping, aluminium ; for in- 
stance, 200 lbs. ferro-nickel, 800 lbs. ingot-iron, 6 lbs. 
ferro-manganese with 75 per cent, manganese and ^ lb. 
aluminium, total 1006.5 ^ Ds - Leschesne proceeds in a simi- 
lar manner. 



*U. S. Patent, 415,655, Nov. 19, 1889. 

t Engineering and Mining Journal, January 31, \\ 

% German patent No. 37376. 



336 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

For the preparation of nickel-steel at Homestead, Pa., * 
nickelous oxide together with lime is brought upon the 
hearth of a Martin furnace, upon this ingot-iron and the 
rest of the charge. For alloys poorer in nickel, nickelous 
oxide and coal are made into bricks and brought into the 
furnace. In the Bethlehem works reducing coal is used or 
metallic nickel added for steel with 20 per cent, nickel. 

Riley states the alloy (nickel-steel) can be made in any 
good open-hearth furnace, working at a fairly good heat. 
No special arrangements are required for casting, the 
ordinary ladles and moulds being sufficient. If the charge 
is properly worked, nearly all the nickel will be found in 
the steel — almost none is lost in the slag. 

No extraordinary care is required when reheating the 
ingots for hammering or rolling. If the steel has been 
properly made, and is of correct composition, it will ham- 
mer and roll well, whether it contains little or much nickel. 
Riley appears to have obtained the best results with steel 
containing five per cent, nickel. With this grade rolled, 
but not annealed, he obtained elastic limit, 69,664 pounds 
per square inch, tensile strength 116,480 pounds per square 
inch, with fourteen per cent, elongation in eight inches. 
When rolled and annealed, elastic limit 72,800 pounds per 
square inch, tensile strength 104,832 pounds per square 
inch with thirteen and one-half per cent, elongation in eight 
inches. 

Riley states that the whole series of nickel steels up to 
fifty per cent, nickel takes a good polish and finish. Steels 
rich in nickel are practically non-corrodible, and those poor 
in nickel are much better than other steels in this respect. 

The alloys up to five per cent, of nickel can be machined 
with moderate ease ; beyond that they are more difficult to 
machine. 

The one per cent, nickel-steel welds fairly well, but this 
quality deteriorates with each addition of nickel. 

* Stahl und Eisen, 1895. No. 15, p. 119. 



NICKEL ALLOYS. 337 

The tests of some of the nickel steel made by Carnegie, 
Phipps & Co.,. Pittsburg, for the U. S. Navy Department, 
gave the following results : Elastic limit (two specimens) 
59,000 and 60,000 lbs. per square inch, ultimate tensile 
strength, 100,000 and 102,000 lbs. per square inch; elonga- 
tion, 15^ per cent., and reduction of area at fracture, 29^ 
and 26^ per cent. The test pieces were cut % inch plate. 
The chemical analysis gave a content of r 6 - per cent, nickel.* 

The conductivity of nickel steel is extremely poor and 
low, but the resistance very high. According to Hopkin- 
son, nickel steel containing less than 5 per cent, nickel is 
decidedly more magnetizable than wrought iron, particularly 
for high inductions. On the other hand, when containing 
25 per cent, nickel, it is non-magnetic. But if cooled to 
— 4 F. it becomes very decidedly magnetic and remains so 
when it again returns to its normal condition. If, finally, 
it is heated until it reaches its critical temperature, 1076 
F., it becomes again non-magnetic and remains so until 
cooled to — 4 F.f 

* Engineering and Mining Journal, Dec. 13, 1890. 
fF. Lynwood Garrison, Journal Franklin Inst., September, 1891. 
22 



CHAPTER XI. 
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 

As stated in the general review of the metals, aluminium 
is distinguished by a beautiful silvery color and great 
strength. It is, however, especially valuable on account of 
its low specific gravity, which is about that of glass. 

Among the alloys of aluminium those with iron and cop- 
per are of special importance, but before entering on a de- 
scription of them we will briefly mention the behavior of 
aluminium towards the other metals. 

Aluminium unites easily with most of the metals, the 
combination being usually accompanied by a disengagement 
of heat, which is particularly active in the case of copper. 
Lead and antimony appear to be the only metals not alloy- 
ing with it easily. The practical production of aluminium 
alloys is, generally speaking, not a difficult operation. The 
aluminium may be melted in a carbon or magnesia-lined 
crucible, without a flux, and the other metal simply thrown 
in ; it falls to the bottom, melts, and is absorbed by the 
aluminium. In some few cases the alloying metal must be 
mixed in powder with finely-divided aluminium and heated 
together in a closed crucible, but this is only exceptionally 
the case. Again, a bar of aluminium may be taken in the 
tongs and held under the surface of another metal already 
melted. This is the best method of introducing small per- 
centages of aluminium into other metals, unless we may 
except the adding of a small quantity of rich alloy to pure 
metal, thus diluting the percentage of aluminium to the 
desired quantity. Most of the alloys thus produced are 
improved by careful remelting, the aluminium seeming to 
become more intimately combined. The alloy made in the 

(338) 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 339 

first operation is often not entirely homogeneous, but be- 
comes more uniform, and finally perfectly so, by repeated 
fusion. Very few of these alloys will liquate, the alloys in 
general acting as a single metal. However, in some cases 
where the alloy is not of a very definite or certain composi- 
tion a liquation may take place, leaving as a residue an 
alloy with different proportions from the fluid metal running 
off. In the case of volatile metals they can usually be 
driven out of the aluminium by keeping the alloy melted 
and exposed to a heat sufficient to drive off the volatile 
metal. 

The properties of the alloys of aluminium with the prec- 
ious metals, gold and silver, approach nearest to those of 
the metal present in larger quantity. An alloy of aluminium 
90 parts and gold 10 equals in hardness a corresponding 
alloy of gold and silver, and shows a beautiful yellow color. 
It can be readily worked under the hammer and rolled out 
to sheet. An alloy of aluminium with five parts of silver 
does not differ in its properties from pure aluminium, except 
that it is somewhat harder and takes a finer polish. It is 
used in- making balances for chemists. With a content of 
iron of over five per cent., the aluminium becomes more 
refractory and, at the same time, brittle. The introduction 
of 0.1 per cent, of bismuth makes the metal so brittle that 
it can no longer be worked ; it breaks even if worked 
directly after annealing. The presence of a small quantity 
of silicon gives to aluminium a strong crystalline structure, 
the crystallization being clearly perceptible on the surface 
by a peculiar net-like appearance of the metal. 

Aluminium-iron alloys. — A small quantity of aluminium, 
by changing the structure of iron and steel, improves their 
strength, sensibly increases their resistance towards cor- 
roding substances and atmospheric influences, and lowers 
the fusing point, for instance of cast iron, making the cast- 
ings more uniform and denser — for instance, Mitis castings. 

Speaking generally of the application of aluminium to 



34-0 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the manufacture of iron and steel, the usual amount stated 
to be requisite for producing good results is about o.io 
per cent., but in many cases this would be too little. 

Aluminium steel. — A considerable percentage of the 
total production of aluminium, both in this conntry and in 
Europe, is used in the manufacture of iron and steel cast- 
ings. The process consists in adding from o. 10 to 0.15 
per cent, of aluminium to iron and steel just before casting, 
by which blow-holes are prevented and sounder castings 
produced. The beneficial effect is due in part at least to 
the deoxidizing action of aluminium upon carbon monoxide 
at a high temperature, a reaction which has been demon- 
strated directly between the metal and the gas. A detail 
of manipulation in the method of applying aluminium, 
especially in castings for steam and pump cylinders, and 
other castings intended to resist high pressure, is reported 
in Dingler's Polytechnical Journal, Vol. 284, No. 11. The 
addition is made by first forming a mixture of aluminium 
and iron, which is effected by placing the proper quantity 
of heated aluminium in the bottom of a small ladle, run- 
ning some iron into the ladle from the furnace, and wait- 
ing until the mixture begins to stiffen. Then the iron to 
be operated on is run into a large ladle and the iron-alumin- 
ium mixture is poured into it, whereby an intimate mixture 
of the whole is effected. For 220 lbs. of iron to be opera- 
ted on, about 7 ozs. of aluminium are used. The iron is 
not poured at once from the large ladle, but is allowed to 
stand until it is orange-yellow and a thin film begins to 
form on the surface. As soon as this occurs the film is 
removed and the iron is poured. The mould should be 
kept full. 

According to a paper read by Mr. J. W. Langley at the 
Glen Summit meeting of the American Institute of Mining 
Engineers, the practice in the United States in pouring 
ingots is as follows : The aluminium in small pieces of % 
or % pound weight is thrown into the ladle during the 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 341 

tapping, shortly after a small quantity of steel has already 
entered it. The aluminium melts almost instantaneously, 
and diffuses with great rapidity throughout the contents of 
the ladle. The diffusion seems to be complete. The quan- 
tity of aluminium to be employed will vary slightly, accord- 
ing to the kind of steel and the results to be attained. For 
open-hearth steel, containing less than 0.50 per cent, car- 
bon, the amount will range from 5 to 10 ounces per ton of 
steel. For Bessemer steel the quantities should be slightly 
increased, viz., 7 to 16 ounces. For steel containing over 
0.50 per cent, carbon, aluminium should be used cautiously ; 
in general between 4 and 8 ounces to the ton. 

Aluminium-copper alloys. — These two metals unite 
readily in any proportions, the union being attended with 
evolution of heat, which in some cases is very large in 
amount. The alloys of aluminium with copper show very 
different properties according to the quantities of alumin- 
ium they contain. Alloys containing but little copper can- 
not be used for industrial purposes. With 60 to 70 per 
cent, of aluminium they are very brittle, glass-hard, and 
beautifully crystalline. With 50 per cent, the alloy is quite 
soft, but under 30 per cent, of aluminium the hardness re- 
turns. 

The usual alloys are those of 1, 2, 5 and 10 per cent, of 
aluminium, such alloys being known as aluminium bronze. 
The 5 per cent, bronze is golden in color, polishes we'll, 
casts beautifully, is very malleable cold or hot, and has 
great strength, especially after hammering. The 7.5 per 
cent, bronze is to be recommended as superior to the. 5 per 
cent, bronze. It has a peculiar greenish-gold color, which 
makes it very suitable for decoration. All these good 
qualities are possessed by the 10 per cent, bronze. It is 
bright golden, keeps its polish in the air, may be easily en- 
graved, shows an elasticity much greater than steel, and 
can be soldered with hard solder. When it is made by a 
simple mixing of ingredients, it is brittle and does not 



34 2 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

acquire its best qualities until after having been cast several 
times. After three or four meltings it reaches a maximum, 
at which point it may be melted several times without 
sensible change. It gives good castings of all sizes and 
runs in sand-moulds very uniformly. Thin castings come 
out very sharp, but if a casting is thin and suddenly 
thickens, small off-shoots must be made at the thick place, 
into which the metal can run and then soak back into the 
casting as it cools and shrinks, thus avoiding cavities by 
shrinkage at the thick part. Its specific gravity is 7.68, 
about that of soft iron. Its strength when hammered is 
equal to the best steel. It may be forged at about the 
same heat as cast steel and then hammered until it is almost 
cold without breaking or ripping. Tempering makes it 
soft and malleable. It does not foul a file and may be 
drawn into wire. Any part of a machine which is usually 
made of steel can be replaced by this bronze. 

The melting-point of aluminium-bronze varies slightly 
with the content of aluminium, the higher grades melting 
at a somewhat lower temperature than the lower. The 
10 per cent, bronze melts at about 1700 F., a little higher 
than ordinary bronze or brass. 

In making aluminium bronze great attention must be 
paid to the quality of the copper used. Ordinary com- 
mercial copper may contain small amounts of antimony, 
arsenic or iron, which the aluminium can in no way re- 
move, and which affect very injuriously the quality of the 
bronze. The aluminium bronzes seem to be extremely 
sensible to the above metals, particularly to iron. This 
necessitates the employment of the very purest copper ; 
electrolytic copper is sometimes used when not too high 
priced, but Lake Superior is generally found satisfactory 
enough. Even the purest copper may contain dissolved 
cuprous oxide or occluded gases, and it is one of the func- 
tions of the aluminium to reduce these oxides and gases, 
forming slag which rises to the surface and leaving the 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. ■ 343 

bronze free from their influences. If tin occurs in the cop- 
per, it lowers very greatly the ductility and strength of the 
bronzes, but zinc is not so harmful. 

Care should also be taken as to the purity of the alumin- 
ium used, though its impurities are not so harmful as 
they would be if occurring in similar percentage in the 
copper, since so much more copper than aluminium is used 
in these alloys. Yet the bronzes are so sensitive to the 
presence of iron that an aluminium with as small a per- 
centage of this metal as possible should be used. The 
silicon in commercial aluminium is not so harmful as the 
iron, but it does harden the bronze considerably and in- 
creases its tensile strength. The " Magnesium and Alumin- 
ium Fabrik " of Hemelingen gives the following directions 
for preparing the bronzes : Melt the copper in a plumbago 
crucible and heat it somewhat hotter than its melting point. 
When quite fluid and the surface clean, sticks of aluminium 
of a suitable size are taken in tongs and pushed down 
under the surface, thus protecting the aluminium from 
oxidizing. The first effect is necessarily to chill the copper 
more or less in contact with the aluminium ; but if the cop- 
per was at a good heat to start with, the chilled part is 
speedily dissolved and the aluminium attacked. The chem- 
ical action of the aluminium is then shown by a rise in tem- 
perature which may even reach a white heat ; considerable 
commotion may take place at first, but this gradually subsides. 
When the required amount of aluminium has been intro- 
duced, the bronze is let alone for a few moments, and then 
well stirred, taking care not to rub or scrape the sides of 
the crucible. By the stirring, the slag, which commenced 
to rise even during the alloying, is brought almost entirely 
to the surface. The crucible is then taken out of the fur- 
nace, the slag removed from the surface with a skimmer, 
the melt again stirred to bring up what slag may still re- 
main in it, and is then ready for casting. It is very injur- 
ious to leave it longer in the fire than is absolutely neces- 



344 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

sary; also any flux is unnecessary, the bronze needing only 
to be covered with charcoal powder. The particular point 
to be attended to in melting these bronzes is to handle as 
quickly as possible when once melted. 

As with ordinary brass or bronze, two or three remelt- 
ings are needed before the combination of the metals ap- 
pears to be perfect, and the bronze takes on its best quali- 
ties. When the alloy is thus made perfect, the bronze is 
not altered by remelting, and the aluminium which in the 
first instance removed the dissolved oxides and occluded 
gases from the copper, now prevents the copper from tak- 
ing them up again, and so keeps the bronze up to quality. 
If, however, the bronze is kept melted a long time, and 
subject to oxidizing influences, the tendency of the copper 
to absorb oxygen will cause some loss of aluminium by the 
action of the latter in removing the oxygen taken up, and 
a slag consisting principally of alumina will result ; but if 
the remelting of the bronze is done quickly and the surface 
covered with charcoal or coke, the loss from this cause will 
be very trifling, and the percentage of aluminium will 
remain practically constant. 

Dilution of a high per cent, bronze to a lower one is 
practiced on a large scale by the companies which produce 
aluminium bronze directly in their reduction furnaces. The 
operation is said to consist simply in melting the high per 
cent, bronze in a crucible, and stirring into it pure copper 
in the required proportion, or else melting the two down 
together on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace. The 
combined aluminium thus cleanses the added copper and 
produces a lower per cent, bronze of right quality if the 
high per cent, bronze is pure and the copper added of the 
proper quality. It is, of course, quite certain that no diffi- 
culty can occur in adding aluminium to a low per cent, 
bronze to increase its percentage other than that of imper- 
fect combination which may be overcome by one or two 
remeltings. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 345 

Aluminium bronze is not an easy metal to cast perfectly 
until the molder is familiar with its peculiarities. Alumin- 
ium bronze shrinks about twice as much as brass, and this 
shrinkage in setting and this contraction in cooling are the 
obstacles which cause the most trouble. A plumbago 
crucible, or one lined with magnesite, * is the best to use 
for melting the bronze, the melt being kept covered with 
powdered charcoal. Dr. Joseph W. Richards suggests that 
the stirrers and skimmers used be coated with a wash made 
of plumbago and a little fire-clay, as the contact of bronze 
with bare iron tools cannot but injure its quality. The 
crucible should not be kept in the fire any longer than is 
absolutely required to bring the bronze to proper heat for 
casting. In casting it is of considerable advantage to use 
a casting ladle, into which the bronze is poured, which is 
arranged so as to tap from the bottom. This effectually 
keeps any slag or scum from being entangled in the cast- 
ing. The same result is also obtained by arranging a large 
basin on top of the pouring gate, which is temporarily 
closed by an iron or clay stopper. Enough bronze is then 
poured into this basin to fill the mould, and after the dirt 
is all well up to the surface, the plug is withdrawn and the 
mould fills with clean metal. For very small work the 
ordinary skim-gate will answer the above purpose ; for 
larger castings the tapping ladle is preferred. Plain cast- 
ings, such as pump-rods, shafting, etc., and especially billets 
for rolling and drawing, are cast advantageously in iron 
moulds, which should be provided with a large sinking 
head on top to feed the casting as it cools. Rubbing with 
a mixture of plumbago, kaolin and oil is said to protect the 

*It is best to use the white Grecian mineral, fully shrunk by calcining at 
the highest heat of a fire-brick or porcelain kiln; and then ground fine and 
made into a stiff paste with sugar syrup or molasses. The crucible is care- 
fully lined, and then heated slowly to redness. On cooling any cracks are 
carefully filled with more paste, and the crucible is baked again ; when 
properly prepared, however, one baking is sufficient, and the linings do not 
shrink from the walls of the crucible. 



346 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

iron moulds from sticking. The chilling makes the bronze 
soft, and the slabs and cylinders thus cast for rolling and 
drawing are in good condition to be worked at once. For 
ordinary foundry castings, sand moulds are used. The 
slower cooling makes the castings more or less hard ; if soft 
castings are wanted they can be subsequently annealed. * 

Thomas D. West, the author of "American Foundry 
Practice," in a paper on " Casting Aluminium Bronze and 
other Strong Metals," read before the American Society of 
Mechanical Engineers, says: 

" The difficulties which beset the casting of aluminium 
bronze are in some respects similar to those which were 
encountered in perfecting methods for casting steel. There 
is much small work which can be successfully cast by 
methods used in the ordinary moulding of cast iron, but in 
peculiarly proportioned and in large bronze castings other 
means and extra display of skill and judgment will generally 
be required. In strong metals there appears to be a ' red 
shortness ' or degree of temperature after it becomes soli- 
dified, at which it may be torn apart if it meets a very little 
resistance to its contraction, and the separation may be 
such as cannot be detected by the eye, but will be made 
known only when pressure is put upon the casting. To 
overcome this evil and to make allowance for sufficient 
freedom in contraction, much judgment will often be re- 
quired and different modes must be adopted to suit vary- 
ing conditions. One factor often met with is that of the 
incompressibility of cores or parts forming the interior 
portion of castings, while another is the resistance which 
flanges, etc., upon an exterior surface oppose to freedom of 
contraction of the mass. The core must generally be ' rot- 
ten ' and of a yielding character. This is obtained by using 

* Aluminium : Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and 
Applications, Including Its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards. Third 
edition, Revised and Enlarged. 1896.- Philadelphia, Henry Carey Baird 
& Co. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 347 

rosin in coarse sand, and filling the core as full of cinders 
and large vent-holes as possible, and by not using any 
core-rods of iron. The rosin would cause the core when 
heated to become soft, and would make it very nearly as 
compressible as a ' green-sand ' core when the pressure of 
the contraction of the metal would come upon it. 

" By means of dried rosin or green sand cores we were 
able to meet almost any difficulties which might arise in 
ordinary work from the evils of contraction, so far as cores 
were concerned. For large cylinders or castings, which 
might require large round cores which could be ' swept,' 
a hay-rope wound around a core barrel would often prove 
an excellent yielding backing, and allow freedom for con- 
traction sufficient to insure no rents or invisible strain in 
the body of the casting. To provide means of freedom in 
the contraction of exterior portions of castings, which may 
be supposed to offer resistance sufficient to cause an injury, 
different methods will have to be employed in almost every 
new form of such patterns. It may be that conditions will 
permit the mould to be of a sufficiently yielding character, 
and again it may be necessary to dig away portions of the 
mould or loosen bolts, etc., as soon as the liquid metal is 
thought to have solidified. In any metal there may be in- 
visible rents or strains left in a casting through tension 
when cooling, sufficient to make it fragile or crack of its own 
accord, and this is an element which, from its very deceptive 
nature, should command the closest attention of all inter- 
ested in the manufacture of castings. 

" Like contraction, the element of shrinkage is often 
found seriously to impede the attaining of perfect castings 
from strong metals. In steel castings much labor has to 
be expended in providing" risers sufficient to 'feed solid' or 
prevent ' draw-holes ' from being formed, and in casting 
aluminium-bronze a similar necessity is found. The only 
way to insure against the evils of shrinkage in this metal 
was to have the 'risers ' larger than the body or part of the 



348 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

castings which they were intended to 'feed.' The feeder 
or riser being the largest body, it will, of course, remain 
fluid longer than the casting, and, as in cast-iron, that part 
which solidifies first will draw from the nearest uppermost 
fluid body, and thus leave holes in the part which remains 
longest fluid. The above principle will be seen to be effec- 
tive in obtaining the end sought. It is to be remembered 
that it is not practicable to ' churn ' this bronze, as is done 
with cast iron. A long cast-iron roll, 1 foot in diameter, 
can by means of a feeder 5 inches in diameter and a /-£ inch 
wrought-iron rod be made perfectly sound for its full length. 
To cast such a solid in bronze, the feeding head should be 
at least as large as the diameter of the roll, and the casting 
moulded about one-quarter longer than the length of roll 
desired. The extra length would contain the shrinkage 
hole, and when cut off a solid casting would be left. This 
is a plan often practised in the making of guns, etc., in cast 
iron, and is done partly to insure against the inability of 
many moulders to feed solid and to save that labor. A 
method which the writer found to work well in assisting to 
avoid shrinkage in ordinary csstings in aluminium bronze 
was to ' gate ' a mould so that it could be filled or poured 
as quickly as possible, and to have the metal as dull as it 
would flow to warrant a full run of casting. By this plan 
very disproportionate castings were made without feeders 
on the heavier parts, and upon which draw or shrinkage 
holes would surely have appeared had the metal been poured 
hot. 

"The metal works well in our ordinary moulding sands 
and ' peels ' extra well. As a general thing, disproportion- 
ate castings weighing over 100 pounds are best made in 
'dry' instead of 'green' sand moulds, as such will permit 
of cleaner work and a duller pouring of the metal, for in 
this method there is not that dampness which is given off 
from a green-sand mould and which is so liable to cause 
' cold shots.' When the position of the casting work will 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 349 

permit, many forms which are proportionate in thickness 
can be well made in green-sand by coating the surface of 
the moulds and gates with ' silver-lead ' or plumbago. 

"From 'blow-holes,' which are another characteristic 
element likely to exist in strong metals, it can be said that 
aluminium-bronze is free. Should any exist, it is the fault 
of the moulder or his mould, as the metal itself runs in 
iron moulds as sound and close as gold. Sand moulds to 
procure good work must be well vented, and, if of ' dry- 
sand,' thoroughly open sand mixture should be used and 
well dried. The sand for ' green-sand ' work is best fine, 
similar to that which will work well for brass castings. For 
'dry-sand-' w r ork the mixture should be as open in nature 
as possible, and, for blacking the mould, use the same mix- 
tures as are found to work well with cast iron." 

Aluminium bronze forges similarly to the best Swedish 
iron but at a much lower temperature. It works best at a 
cherry red; if this is much exceeded, the metal becomes 
hot- short, and is easily crushed. The temperature for 
rolling is a bright red heat, and it is a curious fact that if 
the metal were forged at the temperature at which it is 
rolled, it would be crushed to pieces. If the temperature 
in the ordinary muffle in which it is heated.be allowed to 
rise too high, the bronze will frequently fall apart by its own 
weight. When in the rolls it acts very much like yellow 
Muntz metal. As it loses its heat much more rapidly than 
copper or iron, it has to be annealed frequently between 
rollings. 

The following examples of rolling are given by the 
" Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company": A 
billet of 10 per cent, bronze about 18" x \%" x \%" was 
rolled in a Belgian train to quarter-inch rod, at one anneal- 
ing. The 5 per cent, bronze is harder to roll hot than the 
10 per cent., but in cold rolling just the reverse is true; a 
piece of 5 per cent, sheeting, 8 inches wide, has been re- 
duced 8 gauge numbers when rolled cold at one annealing ; 



350 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



while a 10 per cent, sheet could not be reduced more than 
half that number. The billets for rolling can be best pre- 
pared by casting in iron moulds previously rubbed with a 
mixture of plumbago, pipe-clay; and lard oil. The metal 
chills very quickly, and very smooth castings can be pro- 
duced, the smoothness depending considerably on the speed 
of pouring. With care the 5 and 10 per cent, bronzes can 
be easily drawn into wire. It is preferable, however, to 
roll the 5 per cent, to quarter inch rods, and the 10 per 
cent, to a less diameter, and anneal them. The metal thus 
prepared is much tougher and less liable to break in draw- 
ing. The dies must be very hard, or the ordinary wire, 
and especially the higher grades, are apt to cut them. The 
speed of the draw blocks must be less than for iron, brass, 
copper, German silver, or soft steel, and the reduction must 
be more gradually effected. 

Aluminium bronze is, in every respect, considered the 
best bronze yet known. Its rather high cost formerly pre- 
vented its extensive use in the arts, but since the perfec- 
tion of processes for the production of aluminium, the cost 
of manufacture has been greatly reduced. 

The following results were obtained at the South Boston 
Iron Works, with pieces of the Cowles Company allovs : 



Aluminium bronze. 



10 per cent, bronze 
10 



9 

7/2 



Tensile strength, 
pounds per 
square inch. 



9i,4D3 
92,441 
96,434 
77,062 
71,698 
72,019 
60,716 



Elastic limit. 



59,8i5 
85,034 
51,774 
44,025 

45,537 



Elongation, 
per cent. 



1 

9 

9 

28^ 





The following tests were made at the Washington Navy 
Yard of pieces very nearly half an inch in diameter and two 
inches between shoulders : 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 



351 



Aluminium bronze. 



10 per cent, bronze 
10 " 
10 " 



Tensile strength, 
pounds per 
square inch. 



H4,5I4 

95,366 

109,823 



Elastic limit. 



69,749 
79,894 



Elongation, 
per cent. 



0.45 
0.05 
0.05 



According to Thurston, the alloys of aluminium and 
copper may be made by fusing together the oxides with 
metallic copper and enough carbon and flux to reduce them. 
The oxides as well as the other materials should be as finely 
divided as possible, and the carbon introduced in excess. 

Aluminium brass. An addition of aluminium (1.5 to 
5.8 per cent.) to brass increases its strength, toughness 
and elasticity. An alloy of copper 60 parts, zinc 30, and 
aluminium 2, made by the aluminium factory at Hemlingen 
near Bremen, can be rolled, forged, stamped, drawn into 
tubes and wire, is suitable for bells, strings, etc., and es- 
pecially for cartridge shells, they being not attacked by the 
gases of the powder. With an addition of 8 per cent, 
aluminium the brass becomes more ductile, acquires a more 
beautiful color, and becomes stronger and more resistant 
towards- caustic fluids. With over [3 per cent, aluminium 
it becomes hard and red-short, and acquires a reddish 
color. With a still greater content of aluminium it becomes 
very brittle and gray-black, but at 25 per cent, the strength, 
according to Langhove, increases again. 

According to Kiliani the action of aluminium upon brass 
is much more powerful than upon bronze ; 1 to 3 per cent, 
of it producing nearly the same effect in the former as 5 to 
10 per cent, in the latter, so that aluminium-brass is the 
cheaper metal. Compared with aluminium-bronze, alumin- 
ium-brass has the disadvantage of greater weight and of 
being more readily oxidized, it being, however, less oxidiz- 
able than many other metals used at the present time. For 



352 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

soft brass alloys % to 2 per cent, aluminium is usually 
taken ; for hard alloys 2 to 3.5 per cent. While in casting 
ordinary brass a dirty-green coat of oxide is obtained, with 
an addition of only % per cent, aluminium the surface re- 
mains bright and lustrous, and the metal itself becomes 
more liquid. By the addition of 1 per cent, aluminium the 
tensile strength of brass with 33 per cent, zinc is greater 
than that of cast delta metal. The content of zinc exerts 
an essential influence upon the alloy; the greater it is the 
smaller the addition of aluminium must be, otherwise the 
alloy will be too hard and brittle. To brass with 33 per 
cent, zinc, up to 3.5 per cent, aluminium is generally added, 
and to brass with 40 per cent, zinc, not over 2 per cent. 
While alloys with 40 per cent, zinc can, without regard to 
their content of aluminium, be forged at a dark red heat, 
those with 33 per cent, zinc must contain at least 2 to 3^ 
per cent, aluminium to be malleable at a dark red to brown 
heat. With the decrease in the content of aluminium the 
forging temperature also decreases, so that brass containing 
1 per cent, should be forged only hand-warm, and brass 
with % per cent. cold. Brass with 33 per cent, zinc and 3 
to 4 per cent, aluminium can be forged at a dark cherry-red 
heat, while at this temperature ordinary brass breaks up 
under the hammer. 

The aluminium may be added to the fusing brass either 
as such, or in the form of a 20 or 25 per cent, aluminium 
bronze. In remelting aluminium-brass an enrichment of 
aluminium takes place in consequence of the volatilization 
of zinc. Casting requires experience, on account of the 
great shrinkage and the formation of froth, the latter read- 
ily passing into the alloy. A warm alloy when suddenly 
cooled becomes brittle and the fracture exhibits a deep 
golden lustrous color. 

Messrs. Cowles recommended aluminium brass for the 
following purposes : 

"Valve and valve-seats for mining pumps, or pumps 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 353 

working under great pressure, worms and worm-wheels, 
slide-faces, mining machinery, pinions, screws, hydraulic 
machinery, dredging machinery, gates for turbine wheels 
working under a high head, propeller wheels, and as a metal 
to resist the action of salt water in marine architecture. 
While aluminium brass is not quite as strong or as tough 
as the A grade bronze, yet it will answer nearly as well for 
many purposes that the bronze is used for." 

The ordinary grades of aluminium brass have about 
85,000 pounds per square inch in tensile strength, with 
nine per cent, elongation. 

Cowles Bros, report the following series of tests made, 
at their works in Lockport, their alloys all being made by 
adding zinc to aluminium-bronze : 





Composition. 




Te: 


nsile strength 
r square inch 


Elongation 


' 




* 


pe 


Aluminium. 


Copper. 


Zinc. 




(castings). 


per cent. 


5.8 


67.4 


26.8 




95,712 


1.0 


3-3 


63-3 


33-3 




85,867 


7-6 


3-0 


'67.0 


30.0 




67,341 


12.5 


1.5 


77-5 


21.0 




32,356 


41.7 


1-5 


71.0 


27-5 




41,552 


27.0 


1-25 


70.0 


28.0 




35,059 


25.0 


2.5. 


70.0 


27-5 




40,g82 


28.0 


1.0 


57-o 


42.0 




68,218 


2.0 


1. 15 


55-8 


43-0 




69,520 


4.0 



Richards bronze. — The alloy known under this name is 
the invention of Mr. Joseph Richards, of Philadelphia. It 
is a very strong and at the same time cheap alloy. It con- 
tains copper 55 parts, zinc 42 or 43, iron 1, aluminium 1 
to 2. This alloy is of a golden-yellow color, is exceedingly 
fine-grained, and has a tensile strength in castings of 50,000 
lbs. per square inch with 15 per cent, elongation. Like all 
the strong brasses, however, it requires some experience in 
handling before the ordinary metal-worker can turn out 
uniform castings with these maximum properties. The 
worked metal averages 50 per cent, stronger. 
23 



354 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Aluminium-nickel- copper alloys. — A number of remark- 
able and useful alloys are made by mixing aluminium 
bronzes with nickel in various proportions. These com- 
positions are said to be very ductile and to have a tenacity 
of from 75,000 to over 100,000 lbs. per square inch, with 
about 30 per cent, elongation. Tests made by Kirkaldy on 
alloys of a similar nature made by the " Webster Crown 
Metal Company," England, gave results ranging from 
82,000 to over 100,000 lbs. per square inch with 20 to 30 
per cent, elongation. 

The alloys are prepared as follows : 

a. Copper is melted and aluminium added to it until a 10 
per cent, bronze is made. There is then added to it 1 to 6 
per cent, of an alloy, ready prepared, containing : 

Copper 20 parts. 

Nickel 20 " 

Tin 50 " 

Aluminium 7 " 

The alloy thus prepared would contain, as represented 
by the two extremes : 

I. II. 

Copper 89.3 86.4 

Nickel 0.3 1.4 

Tin 0.4 2.0 

Aluminium 10. 10.2 

b. The two following alloys are prepared in the usual 
way, under a flux consisting of equal parts of potassium 
and sodium chlorides, and are cast into bars : 

I. II. 

Aluminium 15 parts Nickel 17 parts 

Tin 85 " Copper 17 " 

Tin 66 " 

100 parts 100 parts 

To make the bronzes, equal parts of these two alloys are 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 355 

melted with copper ; the more of the alloys used the harder 
and better the bronze. The best mixture is of 

Copper : 84 parts 

Alloy I 8 

Alloy II 8 " 

100 parts 

The copper is first melted, then the alloys put in together 
and stirred well. As iron is harmful to this bronze, the 
stirrer should be of wood or clay. This alloy is suitable 
for art castings, kitchen utensils, etc., or anywhere where 
durability, hardness, malleability, polish and very slight 
oxidability are required. A cheaper and more common 
alloy may be made of 

Copper 91 parts 

Alloy I 4 " 

Alloy II 5 " 

The two bronzes would contain centesimally : 

Rich alloy. Poorer alloy. 

Copper 85.36 94.58 

Tin 12.08 6.70 

Nickel 1.36 3.85 

Aluminium 1 .20 0.60 

c. The following alloy is said to withstand oxidation well,. 
to possess great tenacity, durability, capability to bear 
vibration, and to take a high polish. A preliminary alloy 
is made of : 

Copper 200 parts 

Tin 80 " 

Bismuth 10 " 

Aluminium 10 " 

The alloy proper is made by melting together : 

Preliminary alloy 4^ parts 

Copper 164 



Nickel 



70 



Zinc 6t^ 



356 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The final composition would be by calculation : 

Copper 55-67 

Nickel 23.33 

Zinc 20 50 

Tin 0.40 

Bismuth 0.05 

Aluminium 0.05 



d. Another alloy patented by Mr. Webster contains : 

Copper 53 parts = 51.0 per cent. 

Nickel - 22^ " = 21.6 

■ Zinc 2 " =21.2 

Tin 5 " = 4-8 

Bismuth = 0.7 

Aluminium = 0.7 



100.00 



Lechesne. — The alloy known under this name has been 
patented in England by the Societe anonyme la Ferro- 
Nickel, of Paris. The patent specified two alloys containing : 





II. 


parts 


600 parts 


" 


400 " 



Copper 900 

Nickel 100 

Aluminium i}( " yi 

Which would give in per cent.: 

I. II. 

Copper 89.84 59.97 

Nickel 9.98 39.98 

Aluminium 0.18 .05 



100. co 



The first of these alloys is the one to which the name 
" Lechesne " appears to be given. In a description of the 
manufacture of this alloy, a French magazine states that 
the nickel is first put into a crucible and melted, the copper 
stirred in gradually, then the heat raised and the aluminium 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 357 

added. The alloy is heated almost to boiling and cast very 
hot. This alloy is claimed to be equal to the best quality 
of German silver, being very malleable, homogeneous, 
strong and ductile, and stands hammering, chasing, punch- 
ing, etc. 

The following alloys have been recommended by G. F. 
Andrews as being all very hard, fine-grained and possessing 
great strength. 

Aluminium. Nickel. Copper. 

No. I 6% 21% 72y 2 

No. II io 24 66 

No. Ill 12 33 55 

No II. has the color of io-carat gold and takes a fine 
polish. No III. has a beautiful golden-brown color. No. 
I. is similar in color but of a richer and deeper tone. These 
alloys may be very useful for decorative purposes. 

Sun-bronze. — An alloy known under this name is com- 
posed of cobalt 6o or 40 parts, aluminium 10, copper 30 or 50. 

Metalline. — This alloy contains cobalt 35 parts, alumin- 
ium 25, iron 10, copper 30. 

Aluminium alloy for dentists fillings* — Silver 12.3, per 
cent., tin 52, copper 4.7, aluminium 1. It is reduced to a 
powder and then forms an amalgam with mercury. 

Alloy for type metalj\ — Lead 65 parts, antimony 20, and 
10 parts of an alloy consisting of equal parts of tin, copper, 
and aluminium. The tin-copper-aluminium alloy is first 
melted, the antimony added to it, and the mixture is then 
added to the melted lead. 

Aluminium alloy for type metal. % — Aluminium 72 to 90 
per cent., copper 2 to 10 per cent., and tin 2 to 23 per cent. 

Aluminium-nickel bronze. § — A small quantity of mag- 
nesium is added to aluminium-nickel bronze, the following 

*U. S. patent, 475,382, May 24, 1892. 
tU. S. patent, 463,427, Nov. 11, 1891. 
% German patent, 101,020. 
§ English patent, 5,568, 1898. 



358 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

proportions being the best: Copper 89 to 98 per cent., 
aluminium and nickel 2 to 11 per cent. To this is added, 
phosphorus up to 0.5 per cent, and magnesium up to 1.5 
per cent. This alloy is claimed to be especially suitable for 
locomotive furnaces, fire-tubes, etc., as well as for castings, 
such as cocks, valves, bearings, etc. 

Partinium. — The alloy known under this name is an 
aluminium-tungsten alloy and is extensively used in France 
in the construction of motors, etc. It is cheaper than 
aluminium, nearly as light, and possesses greater power of 
resistance. Cast partinium has a specific gravity = 2.89, 
and rolled partinium one =2.89. It is claimed to have a 
tensile strength of 32 to $7 kilogrammes per square milli- 
meter. 

Aluminium-bronze alloy.* — Aluminium 12 to 25 parts, 
manganese 2 to 5, copper 75 to 85. 

Hercules' metal. — An alloy known under this name con- 
sists of bronze 88 per cent., aluminium 2^, tin 7J, and 
zinc 2. 

Aluminium-chromium alloy. — With chromium alumin- 
ium forms a beautiful alloy which can be prepared by a 
rather tedious operation in the form of crystalline needles. 
It has thus far found no technical application. 

A lu m in iu m - m agn esiu m a Hoy ca lied m a gn a liu m.f — This 
alloy which is used for various purposes is made by adding 
2 to 10 parts of magnesium to 100 parts aluminium. It 
forms an exception to the general rule that aluminium 
alloys are specifically heavier than pure aluminium. Alloys 
with 6 per cent, magnesium are specifically not heavier 
than aluminium, and with a higher percentage lighter. 
Alloys with 3 to 10 per cent, magnesium have two to two 
and half times the strength of pure aluminium, but a higher 
percentage of magnesium decreases the strength. Brittle- 

*U. S. patent, 446,351, Feb. 10, 1891. 

t German patent 113,935. U. S. patent 62,5084. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 359 

ness increases quite rapidly with the content of magnesium, 
and alloys with more than 20 per cent of it are useless by 
reason of their great brittleness, while those with 3 to 4 
per cent, of magnesium are malleable and can be worked. 
However, like pure aluminium, they possess the drawback 
of not being readily worked with cutting tools and clogging 
the file. By subjecting, however, the alloys to a process of 
compression by rolling, drawing, pressing, etc., the remark- 
able fact becomes evident that they acquire entirely differ- 
ent properties. They possess the same properties as pure 
aluminium treated in the same manner, which otherwise can 
be attained only with larger additions of magnesium to 
aluminium, i. e., an alloy with a small content of magne- 
sium can readily be worked with cutting tools. The pro- 
cess of rolling is executed as follows: The alloys are first 
passed ones or several times cold through the ro^s, then 
heated to about 752 to 932 F., again passed once or sev- 
eral times, cold, through the rolls and this alternate heating 
and rolling is repeated till the desired strength has been 
attained. 

Aluminium-magnesium alloy for reflectors, * which, 
when polished, possesses also a strong reflecting power for 
the ultra-violet rays, consists of aluminium 100 parts, mag- 
nesium 60 to 200. 

Alloy of aluminium and tin. — An alloy, the use of which 
it is claimed overcomes the difficulties of working and 
welding aluminium, is formed by melting together 100 
parts of aluminium with 10 of tin. The alloy is whiter 
than aluminium and but little heavier, its specific gravity 
being 2.85. By most substances it is less attacked than 
pure aluminium, and it can be welded and soldered like 
brass without any special preparation. 

Brazing aluminium bronze. — Aluminium-bronze will 
braze as well as any other metal, using one-quarter brass 

* German patent 110,178. 



360 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

solder (zinc 50 per cent., copper 50 per cent.) and three- 
quarters borax. 

Soldering aluminium-bronze. — To solder aluminium- 
bronze with ordinary soft (pewter) solder: Cleanse well 
the parts to be joined free from dirt and grease. Then 
place the parts to be soldered in a strong solution of sul- 
phate of copper, and place in the bath a rod of soft iron 
touching the parts to be joined. After a while a copper- 
like surface will be seen on the metal. Remove from bath, 
rinse quite clean, and brighten the surfaces. These sur- 
faces can then be joined by using a fluid consisting of zinc 
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, in the ordinary way with 
common soft solder. 

Mierzinski recommends ordinary hard solder, and says 
that Hulot uses an alloy of the usual half-and-half lead-tin 
solder with 12.5, 25, or 50 per cent, of zinc amalgam. 

Aluminium-bronze for jewelry may be soldered by using 
the following composition : 

Hard solder for 10 per cent, aluminium-bronze. — Gold 
88.88 per cent., silver 4.68, copper 6.44. 

Middling hard solder for 10 per cent, aluminium-bronze. 
■■ — Gold 54.40 per cent., silver 27.60, copper 18. 

Soft solder for aluminium-bronze . — Brass (copper 70 per 
cent., tin 30 per cent.) 14.30, gold 14.30, silver 57.10, cop- 
per 14.30. 

Schlosser gives the following directions for preparing 
solder for aluminium-bronze : White solder is alloyed with 
zinc amalgam in the proportions of 

White solder 2 4 8 

Zinc amalgam 1 1 I 

The white solder may be composed as follows : 

Brass 40 22 18 

Zinc 2 2 12 

Tin - 8 4 30 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 361 

The zinc amalgam is made by melting 2 parts of zinc, 
adding 1 part of mercury, stirring briskly and cooling the 
amalgam quickly. It forms a silver white, very brittle 
alloy. The white solder is first melted, the finely powdered 
zinc amalgam added, and the alloy stirred until uniform, 
and poured into bars. 

Soldering aluminium. — Although strictly speaking the 
subject of soldering aluminium-bronze and aluminium does 
not belong here, a special chapter being devoted to 
"Soldering," it is preferred to refer to it in this place. 

From the articles which occasionally appear in the trade 
journals, both in Europe and in this country, and the 
patent list, it appears that the difficulties of soldering 
aluminium have not been entirely overcome. Some of the 
solders are here introduced without comment. 

Mourey s aluminium solders are composed of : — 

I. II. III. IV. V. 

Zinc 80 85 88 90 94 

Copper 8 6 5 4 2 

Aluminium 12 9 7 6 4 

In making these solders the copper should be melted 
first, the aluminium then added, and the zinc last. Stearin 
is used as a flux to prevent the rapid oxidation of the zinc. 
When the last metal is fused, which takes place very quickly, 
the operation should be finished as rapidly as possible by 
stirring the mass, and the alloy should then be poured into 
an ingot-mould of iron, previously rubbed with fat. The 
pieces to be soldered should first be cleaned thoroughly 
and roughened with a file and the solder placed on the 
parts in small fragments, the pieces being supported on a 
piece of charcoal. The place of juncture should then be 
heated with the blast lamp. The union is facilitated by the 
use of a soldering tool of aluminium. This last is said to 
be essential to the success of the operation. 

Alloy I is recommended for small objects of jewelry ; 



362 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloy IV is said to be best adapted for larger objects and 
for general work, and is that most generally used. The 
successful performance of the act of soldering appears to 
require skill and experience, but the results obtained are 
said to leave nothing to be desired. Soldering tools of 
copper or brass should be avoided, as they would form 
colored alloys with the aluminium and solder. The skillful 
use of the aluminium tool, however, requires some practice. 
At the instant of fusion the operator must apply some fric- 
tion, and, as the solder melts very suddenly, the right 
moment for this manipulation may be lost unless the work- 
man is experienced. 

Boiirbonze s aluminium solder. Tin 45, aluminium 10. 
If the soldered articles are not to be subjected to further 
working, a solder containing somewhat less aluminium may 
be used. 

Frishmutli s aluminium solders. 

I. II. 

Silver 10 — 

Copper 10 — 

Aluminium 20 — 

Tin , 60 95 to go. 

Zinc 90 — 

Bismuth — 5 to 8 

Solder No. II. is to be applied with the soldering iron, 
but on account of its great fusibility it appears to be only 
suitable for small articles, which after soldering are not to 
be subjected to further heating. 

M. H. Lancon has patented* the following method of pre- 
paring aluminium solder : Pure aluminium is melted, the 
surface of the melted metal completely covered with a layer 
of phosphoric acid, acid sodium sulphate, fluorine combina- 
tions or other salts of an acid reaction, and finally a small 
quantity of copper and tin is added to the melted metal, or 
copper, bismuth, zinc and tin, or copper, antimony, bismuth 

* German patent, 66,398. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 363 

and zinc, or copper, antimony, bismuth and. tin. The com- 
position of the solder varies according to the articles to be 
soldered. 

For wire and thin articles the solder is composed of pure 
aluminium 95 parts, copper 1, tin 4. The 4 parts tin may 
be replaced by bismuth 2 parts, zinc 1, tin 1. 

For large pieces of aluminium and aluminium sheets, the 
solder is. composed of: Pure aluminium 95 parts, copper 2, 
antimony 1, bismuth 1, zinc 1 ; or : Pure aluminium 60, 
copper 13, bismuth 10, antimony 15, tin 2. 

Schlosser recommends two solders containing aluminium 
as especially suitable for soldering dental work on account 
of their resistance to chemical action. Copper cannot be 
allowed in alloys intended for this use, or only in very in- 
significant quantity, since it is so easily attacked by acid 
food, etc. Since these two alloys can probably be used also 
for aluminium dental work, their composition is here given : 

Platinum aluminium solder. — Gold 30, platinum 1, silver 
20, aluminium 100. 

Gold aluminium solder. — Gold 50, silver 10, copper 10, 
aluminium 20. 

O. M. Thowless has patented the following solder for 
aluminium and the method of applying it. * The alloy is 
composed of: Tin 55 parts, zinc 23, silver 5, aluminium 2. 

The aluminium and silver are first melted together, the 
tin added, and lastly the zinc. The metallic surfaces to be 
united are immersed in dilute caustic alkali, or a cyanide 
solution, washed and dried. They are then heated over a 
spirit lamp, coated with the solder, and clamped together, 
small pieces of the alloy being placed around the joints. 
The whole is then heated to the melting point of the solder, 
and any excess of it removed. No flux is used. 

C. Sauer of Berlin has patented the following : An alloy 
is made of: Aluminium 9 parts, silver 1, 2, 3, or 4, copper 
2, 3, 4, or 5. 

* English patent, 10,237, Aug. 29, 1885. 



364 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

He also claims the above alloy, to which is added 1 to 2 
parts of zinc, cadmium, or bismuth, or even a fusible metal 
such as Wood's alloy. A small proportion of gold may be 
added. In making, the copper and silver are first melted, 
melted aluminium added, and the solid zinc last dropped 
in. In using, the alloy is broken small, spread between the 
surfaces to be soldered, previously heated, and the joint 
then made with a soldering iron. No flux is required. 

Chloride of silver has been recommended as a solder. It 
is to be finely powdered and spread along the junction to 
be soldered, and melted with the blow- pipe. 

Richards s solder. — Mr. Joseph Richards has patented * 
in the United States and England a composition contain- 
ing a small amount of phosphorus, and describes as prefer- 
able a solder composed of : 

Tin i> 2 parts = 78.34 per cent. tin. 

Zinc 8 " =19.04 " zinc. 

Aluminium 1 " — 2.38 " - aluminium. 

Phosphor tin 1 " = 0.24 " phosphorus. 

On remelting some of this solder, a liquation was noticed, 
and it was inferred that the more fusible part was probably a 
better alloy for soldering, being less likely itself to liquate. 
It was therefore analyzed, and found to contain 71.65 per 
cent, of tin corresponding closely to the formula Sn 4 Zn , 
which would call for 70.7 per cent. The solder as now 
made contains 1 part aluminium, 1 part phosphor tin, 11 
parts zinc and 29 parts tin, giving it 71.2 per cent, of tin. 
The solder fuses easily at a heat attainable with a copper or 
nickel bolt, and possesses great ability to take hold on the 
metal. It is so tough that if a joint is well made the metal 
will break before the solder. It is very nearly the color of 
aluminium, but darkens slightly on standing some time ; 
when the article is in constant wear, however, the solder 
retains its bright color ; when discolored it becomes bright 

* United States patent, 478,238, July 5,1892; English patent, 20,208, 1892. 



ALUMINIUM ALLOYS. 365 

again by polishing. The edges to be joined are filed or 
scraped clean immediately before soldering, then, if the 
piece will allow, heated to a temperature at which the solder 
melts, and the edges are tinned by rubbing with a stick of 
solder. If the whole piece cannot be heated, the edges can 
be tinned by heating with a tinned bolt and rubbing in the 
melted solder briskly. Any surplus solder is removed from 
the edges by a small scraper, while still hot. The prepared 
edges are then soldered together in any way desired. For 
a lap-joint, the edges are overlapped, the soldering bolt 
passed along, and a little extra solder melted in the 
joint. For a joint at an angle, it is necessary that the 
bolt be shaped to fit, as the solder must be rubbed in 
well at the edges. No flux of any kind is to be used either 
on the bolt or on the joint. In making a lock seam, the 
edges of the aluminium should be coated with the solder 
as above-described before being turned over, else the solder 
cannot soak into the joint. Common sheet-tin does not 
need such preparation, because the whole sheet is already 
tinned to start with. In brief, aluminium is similar to cop- 
per and black-iron, not like tinned iron, and the edges must 
be prepared for soldering. 



CHAPTER XII. 
LEAD ALLOYS. 

Lead in a pure state is but little used except for pipes, 
foil, and for certain chemical purposes. Some of its alloys, 
however, are of great importance, and are generally used, 
notwithstanding many efforts to replace them, especially 
for typographical purposes. An addition of other metals 
generally makes the lead harder and more or less injures 
its ductility. An addition of copper imparts to the alloy 
greater hardness without impairing its ductility to a serious 
extent, and if the content of copper be small such an alloy 
can be drawn to pipes or rolled out to thin sheet. 

A content of arsenic, antimony, and tin increases the 
hardness of lead, but considerably impairs its ductility. 
Antimony and arsenic especially exert a strong influence in 
this respect, while the lead-tin alloys retain their ductility. 
Lead-antimony alloys containing less than 22 per cent, 
antimony contract on cooling and are therefore not suitable 
for sharp castings ; only mixtures richer in antimony ex- 
pand on cooling and reproduce the finest depressions of the 
mould. The hardness of lead-antimony alloys increases 
with the content of antimony, alloys with 11 to 17 per 
cent, antimony being about four times as hard as lead, and 
alloys with 23.5 per cent, antimony five times. A larger 
content of antimony makes the alloys still harder (with 
over 25 per cent, twelve times as hard as lead), but on ac- 
count of their brittleness they are not suitable for technical 
purposes. The affinity of zinc and iron for lead being very 
small it is difficult to prepare alloys with them. The most 
important alloys of lead are type-metal and shot-metal, the 

(366) 



LEAD ALLOYS. 367 

first generally an alloy of lead with antimony, and the 
latter, one with arsenic. 

Type- Metal. 

An alloy to serve for type-metal must allow of being 
readily cast, fill the moulds sharply, and at the same time 
be as hard as possible. Though it is difficult entirely to 
satisfy these demands, an alloy consisting of lead and anti- 
mony answers the purpose best. Antimony increases the 
hardness of lead and renders it very brittle if present in too 
large a proportion. An alloy of lead j6 parts, and anti- 
mony 24, appears to be the point of saturation of the two 
metals. More fusible than the average fusibility of the two 
component metals, ductile and considerably harder than lead, 
this alloy expands in. cooling, and to this property is due its 
employment for the manufacture of type. But the above 
compound does not answer perfectly well, especially for 
small type. When too soft it gets out of shape, when too 
hard it cuts the paper ; and it happens very often that the 
founder goes to one or the other extreme. When the alloy 
is melted in contact with the air antimony is oxidized much 
more rapidly than lead, and this accounts for the difficulty 
of obtaining an exact composition. It is a constant subject 
of study for type-founders to arrive at a fusible and homo- 
geneous metal with much expansion, resistant as much as 
possible, and, at the same time, soft enough to be repaired 
and to bear the action of the press without being soon put 
out of shape. 

The alloy of equal proportions is porous, and brittle. 
These defects increase in the same ratio as the proportion 
of antimony increases. On the other hand they disappear 
when the lead takes the place of antimony. An alloy of 
lead 4 parts and antimony i is compact, much harder than 
lead, and remains malleable. 

An alloy of antimony i part and lead 8 is very tough, 
and has a higher specific gravity than the proportional 



3 68 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



specific gravity of the two metals. It is more malleable 
than the preceding alloy and retains a certain degree of 
hardness. The hardness imparted by antimony, the in- 
crease in toughness, and that in the specific gravity are 
quite perceptible in alloys of antimony i part and lead up 
to 16 parts. 

At present a great many receipts for type metal are 
known, in the preparation of which other metals besides 
lead and antimony are used for the purpose of rendering 
the alloy more fusible (additions of bismuth as imparting 
to them greater power of resistance, as well as copper and 
iron having been recommended for the purpose). By such 
admixtures the fusibility of the alloys is, however, impaired, 
and the manufacture of the types becomes much more diffi- 
cult than with an alloy of lead and antimony alone. In the 
following table some alloys suitable for casting type are 
given : 





Parts. 


Metals 






















I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 

10 


V. 
70 


VI. 
6o 


VII. 

55 


VIII. 


IX. 


X. 


Lead , 


3 


5 


10 


55 


100 


6 


Antimony 


I 


I 


i 


2 


18 


20 


25 


30 


30 


— 


Copper 


















8 


4 


Bismuth 


— 


— 


— 


I 


— 


— 


— 


— 


2 


— 


Zinc 




















00 


Tin 


— 


— 


— 


— 


10 


20 


20 


15 


20 




Nickel 


















8 





French and English type-metals always contain a certain 
quantity of tin, as shown by the following analysis : 

English types. French types. 

Lead 69.2 61.3 55.0 55 

Antimony 19.5 18.8 22.7 30 

Tin 9.1 20.2 22.1 15 

Copper 1.7 — — — 

99.5 100.3 99.8 100 



LEAD ALLOYS. 369 

According to Ledebnr, type-metal contains : — 

Lead 75 60 80 82 

Antimony 23 25 20 14.8 

Tin 2 15 — 3.2 

I. Ordinary; II. fine quality of type-metal ; III. alloy for 
sticks ; IV. for stereotype plates. 

Erhart's type metal. — Erhart recommends the following 
alloys as being hard and at the same time ductile : Zinc 89 
to 93, tin 9 to 6, lead 2 to 4, copper 2 to 4. 

The tin is first melted and then the lead and zinc are 
added in succession, and finally the copper. 

The manufacture of the type from the alloys is seldom 
effected by cold stamping in steel moulds, the process 
being verv expensive ; hence they are generally cast. Ac- 
cording to the old process the types are cast piece by piece 
by means of a small casting ladle, but for types with a large 
face and much detail, the motion of the hand is barely suf- 
ficient to give the momentum required to throw the metal 
into the matrix and produce a clean, sharp impression. A 
machine is then used, which may be compared to a small 
forcing-pump, by which the mould is filled with the fluid 
metal ; but from the greater difficulty of allowing the air to 
escape, such types are in general considerably more un- 
sound in the shaft or body, so that an equal bulk of them 
only weighs about three-fourths as much as type cast in 
the ordinary way by hand, and which for general purposes' 
is preferable and more economical. 

Some other variations are resorted to in type-founding; 
sometimes the mould is filled twice, at other times the faces 
of the types are dabbed (the cliche process), many of the 
large types and ornaments are stereotyped and either sol- 
dered to metal bodies or fixed by nails to wooden blocks. 
The music type and ornamental borders and dashes display 
much curious power of combination. Plates for engraving 
music are generally made of tin 5 to 7.5 parts, antimony 5 
to 2.5. 

24 



37° THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Type-metal being easily cast may also be used for candle- 
sticks, statuettes, etc., sand moulds being generally em- 
ployed for the purpose, though for decorated articles 
metallic moulds thoroughly rubbed inside with oil can be 
advantageously used. 

An alloy for keys of flutes and similar parts of instru- 
ments consists of lead 2 parts, antimony 1. 

Shot- Metal. 

The mixture of metal used for the manufacture of shot 
consists of lead and arsenic. The latter, as previously men- 
tioned, possesses the property of hardening lead, the alloy 
being at the same time more fusible than pure lead. Shot, 
as is well known, is prepared by letting fall from an ele- 
vated place drops of lead into water, and an addition of a 
very small quantity of arsenic to the lead helps its solidifi- 
cation and gives to the shot a more spherical shape. 

On account of the poisonous properties of the arsenious 
vapors certain precautions have to be preserved in prepar- 
ing the alloy. In a cast-iron pot provided with a well-fit- 
ting lid, the lead is first melted and then covered with a 
layer of charcoal dust. Only after this is done should the 
arsenic or arsenious combination to be used be introduced. 
In many shot-factories this precaution is omitted, which, 
however, deserves censure, as everything should be done 
to protect the workmen from the injurious effects of the 
poisonous arsenious vapors. If the metal is covered with a 
layer of charcoal dust, the vapors cannot reach the air as 
easily as when the bright metal is in direct contact with the 
air. White arsenic (arsenious acid) is generally used as an 
addition to the lead, though in some cases red arsenic 
(realgar or red orpiment) is employed. Immediately after 
the introduction of the arsenic the mass is vigorously stirred 
with a wooden rod, and the pot is then covered with the 
lid, which is luted around the edges with moist clay. 

A strong fire is now kept up to render the contents of 



LEAD ALLOYS. 371 

the pot thinly-fluid. After about three hours the lid is re- 
moved and the charcoal and oxides floating upon the sur- 
face having been carefully lifted off, the alloy is poured with 
ladles into moulds. This alloy serves for the preparation of 
the actual shot-lead, which is prepared by melting lead and 
adding a certain quantity of the alloy of lead and arsenic. 
It is in all cases preferable first to prepare the arsenious 
alloy in the manner prescribed, it being otherwise difficult 
intimately and homogeneously to combine the lead with 
the comparatively small quantity of arsenic required for 
shot-metal. 

In working by the preceding process generally 1000 
parts of lead are alloyed with 20 of arsenic, and equal parts 
of this alloy and of lead are subsequently melted together. 
For the direct preparation of the alloy of lead and arsenic 
for shot, 2.4 parts of arsenious acid are used for 600 parts 
of refined lead, or 3.0 parts of arsenic to 700 parts of lead. 
As will be seen the quantity of arsenic is exceedingly small, 
and should in no case exceed that actually required for 
hardening the lead and rendering it easy to cast. The 
quantity considered necessary for this varies much in differ- 
ent countries. While, for instance, in England 10 parts of 
arsenic are allowed for 1100 parts of lead, in France 3 to 8 
parts are considered sufficient for 1000 parts of lead. 

This variation in the proportions of arsenic used for 
hardening the lead is readily accounted for by the difference 
in the qualities of the lead used ; the purer and softer the 
lead the greater the quantity of arsenic required. But under 
no circumstances should good shot-metal contain more 
than from ToVo to toou - of the weight of lead used. 

Both a too small or too large content of arsenic is in- 
jurious ; if the lead contains too little arsenic, the resulting 
shot has the shape of tears, and the interior is frequently 
full of cavities, while with too much arsenic the drops are 
lenticular. As even with much experience it is quite diffi- 
cult to hit at once the right proportion, it is advisable, be- 



3J2 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

fore melting together large quantities of lead and arsenic, 
first to make tests with small quantities. From the shape 
of the shot obtained from these samples it can be readily 
judged whether the proportions are right or in what re- 
spect they have to be changed. 

Many manufacturers of shot, it would seem, vary the 
composition of the alloys used by them, for, besides lead 
and arsenic, other metals are frequently found in shot, es- 
pecially antimony and copper, though the latter only in ex- 
ceedingly small quantities. The content of antimony is, 
however, larger, reaching in many cases 2 per cent, of the 
total weight, and from this it would appear that the manu- 
facturers endeavor to replace the arsenic by antimony. 

Casting of shot. — According to the old method, shot is 
prepared by allowing the melted metal to fall in drops from 
a tower of considerable height. This method is said to 
have originated with a plumber of Bristol, England, named 
Watts, who, about the year 1782, dreamed that he was out 
in a shower of rain, that the clouds rained lead instead of 
water, and the drops of lead were perfectly spherical. He 
determined to try the experiment, and, accordingly, poured 
some melted lead from the tower of St. Mary Redcliffe 
Church into some water below ; the plan succeeded, and he 
sold the invention for a large sum of money. 

For carrying out this invention shot-towers and shot- 
wells have been constructed. At the top- of the tower 
melted lead is poured into a colander and the drops are re- 
ceived into a vessel of water below. The surface of the 
lead becomes covered with a spongy crust of oxide called 
cream, which is used to coat over the bottom of the colander 
to prevent the lead from running too rapidly through the 
holes, whereby they would form oblong spheroids instead 
of spheres. The colanders are hollow hemispheres of 
sheet-iron, the holes in them differing according to the 
size of the shot. They must be at a distance of at least 
three times the diameter of the shot from each other, as 



LEAD ALLOYS. " 373 

otherwise it might happen that two or more drops of lead 
would while falling down, unite to one mass, which, of 
course, would be useless and have to be remelted. 

The water serving for the reception of the drops must be 
frequently changed to prevent it from becoming too hot or 
boiling. By some it is recommended to pour a layer of oil 
upon the surface of the water, the shot retaining thereby its 
spherical shape better than when dropping directly into the 
water. To prevent the shot, when taken from the water, 
from losing its metallic appearance by oxidation, a small 
quantity, (about 0.25 per cent.) of sodium sulphide is dis- 
solved in the water serving for the reception of the shot, 
by means of which the drops falling into it are at once 
coated with a thin film of sulphide of lead of a lustrous, 
metallic, gray-black color, which is permanent even in 
moist air. 

In more recent times the formation of shot by centri- 
fugal power has been introduced, which does away with the 
expensive towers. The melted lead is poured in a thin 
stream upon a rapidly revolving metal disk, surrounded at 
some distance by a screen against which the shot is thrown. 
The moment the melted lead falls upon the metal disk it is 
divided by the centrifugal force into drops, the size of 
which depends on the rapidity with which the disk re- 
volves. The drops are hurled in a tangible direction from 
the disk and are stopped by the above-mentioned screen. 

David Smith, of New York, has invented and put into 
practice a mode of manufacturing drop-shot. The chief 
feature of this invention consists in causing the fused 
metal to fall through an ascending current of air, which 
shall travel at such a velocity that the dropping metal shall 
come in contact with more particles of air in a short tower 
than it would in falling through the highest towers before 
in use. Fig. 33 is a vertical sectional elevation of a sheet- 
metal cylinder set up as a tower within a building, and may 
be about 20 inches internal diameter and 50 feet high or 



374 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



less. This tower, although mentioned in Smith's patent, 
is now- dispensed with in the middle of the height, so that 
only an open space remains. Fig. 34 is a plan at the line 
a b; Fig 35 is a plan at the line q r: Fig. 36 is a section 
at op; and Fig. 37 is a section at m n, Fig. 33. 




C is a water cistern beneath the tower. B is a pipe from 
the blowing apparatus leading into the annular chamber // 
the upper surface g is perforated as shown in Fig. 35 to dis- 
perse the ascending air. The outer side of this annular 
ring / forms the base of a frustrum of a cone, forming the 



LEAD ALLOYS. 



375 



tower D, passing the blast through the frame yy, Fig. 36 ; 
and in Fig. 37 is shown to support a cylindrical standard R, 
the upper central portion of which receives the pouring pan 
A. This pan is charged with each separate size of shot. 
Round the pouring pan A is a. circular waste trough z. 
The object of this arrangement is that the fluid metal run- 
ning through the pouring-pan A into the ascending current 
of air, will be operated upon in the same manner as if it fell 
through stagnant air of great height. The shot falls 



Fig. 36. 



Fie. 27. 





through the open center of the ring / into the water cistern 
C, where a chute t carries it into the tub S, which when 
full may be removed through x, an aperture in the cover of 
the cistern. 

Sorting the shot. — Even with the most careful work it 
happens that drops of unequal size or cornered masses are 
found among the shot, and the latter, after being taken from 
the water and dried, must be sorted. This was formerly 
effected by hand in the following manner : A slab of 
polished iron is tilted at a certain angle, and the shot are 
strewed along the upper part cf the inclined plane thus 
formed. The perfect shot proceed rapidly in straight lines 
and fall into a bin placed to receive them, about a foot 
away from the bottom of the slab. The misshapen shot, 
on the contrary, travel with a slower zigzag motion and 
fall without any bound into a bin placed immediately at the 



37^ THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

end of the incline. The perfect shot are then subjected to 
another sorting by passing them through sieves with 
meshes of exactly the same size as the apertures in the 
casting colanders. 

The finished shot, which are now of dead silvery-white 
color are polished and made dark in an iron barrel or 
rumble containing a quantity of powdered plumbago. They 
are then tied up in canvas bags and are ready for sale. 

At present the shot are, however generally sorted by 
means of sorting drums consisting of inclined cylinders 
perforated with holes whose diameter corresponds to that 
of the shot. The forward motion of the shot in these drums 
is effected by means of an Archimedean screw. 

Large shot are at the present time also frequently pre- 
pared by casting in moulds like bullets, or by stamping 
them from thin plates of the alloy. In both cases the re- 
sulting shot shows a seam which is removed by bringing 
the shot together with very fine. quartz sand into revolving 
drums. By the action of the sand the seams are ground 
off, and a perfectly spherical shape imparted to the shot. 

Alloys of lead and iron.— Lead, as previously stated, has 
no affinity for iron. A piece of lead thrown into a bath of 
melted iron becomes oxidized, or is separated and found at 
the bottom of the bath after the cast-iron has been run out. 
As soon as the lead is introduced into the melted cast-iron, 
a certain agitation appears on the surface, and even through 
the whole bath, and the cast-iron seems more fluid. When 
thin or large pieces are to be cast, the founders, who are 
aware of this phenomenon, often throw a certain quantity 
of lead into the melted cast-iron in order to prevent it from 
congealing too soon against the sides of the casting ladle. 

This want of affinity of lead for iron, and conversely, is 
made use of for separating iron from other metals, such as 
silver, for instance. Thus if lead is added in sufficient 
quantity to a fused alloy of cast-iron and silver, it will com- 
bine with the silver, and the iron will float on the surface of 
the bath. 



LEAD ALLOYS. 377 

All the authors who have occupied themselves with the 
question of alloys agree upon the impossibility of alloying 
lead and iron. 

Alloys of lead and other metals. — Lead, as seen from the 
preceding sections, is much used in the preparation of 
alloys which have been already partially mentioned under 
the respective mixtures of metals. Lead is also frequently 
alloyed with cadmium and bismuth, and forms an important 
constituent of the so-called soft-solder. In speaking of 
these compounds, the lead alloys not yet mentioned will be 
referred to. Only type-metal and shot-metal can be con- 
sidered as lead alloys, i. e., alloys of which lead forms the 
greater portion. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
CADMIUM ALLOYS. 

Cadmium shares with bismuth the property of consider- 
ably lowering the melting points of alloys, but while the 
bismuth alloys are nearly all brittle, many alloys of cad- 
mium possess considerable ductility, and can be worked 
under the hammer as well as between rolls. They act, 
however, very differently in this respect, there being alloys 
which are very ductile, and others again, though contain- 
ing in addition to cadmium the same metals only in differ- 
ent proportions, which are very brittle. 

An alloy consisting, for instance, of cadmium and silver,, 
shows this phenomenon in the most remarkable manner. 
By melting together one part of cadmium and one to two 
parts of silver a very ductile alloy is obtained which can be 
rolled out to a very thin sheet. By taking, however, two 
parts of cadmium to one of silver, the resulting alloy is so 
brittle as to break into pieces under the hammer. 

As cadmium imparts to the alloys a very low melting 
point, it is frequently used in the preparation of very fusible 
solders, for casting articles not to be exposed to a high 
temperature, and, in denistry, for compounds for filling 
hollow teeth. 

Alloys of cadmium contain generally tin, lead, bismuth, 
and sometimes mercury, the latter being chiefly added to 
lower the melting point still more. Alloys of cadmium and 
mercury alone (cadmium amalgams) are solid and mal- 
leable, hence the addition of mercury does not impair their 
solidity. 

Lipowitzs alloy. — This alloy is composed of cadmium 3 

(378) 



CADMIUM ALLOYS. 379 

parts, tin 4, bismuth 15, lead 8. It is best prepared by 
heating the comminuted metals in a crucible and stirring", 
as soon as fusion begins, with a stick of hard wood. This 
stirring is of importance in order to prevent the metals, 
whose specific gravity varies considerably, from depositing 
themselves in layers. This alloy softens at 140 F., and 
melts completely at 158 F. 

Lipowitz's metal has a silvery-white color, a luster like 
polished silver, and can be bent short, hammered, and 
worked in the lathe. It, therefore, possesses properties 
adapting it for many purposes where a beautiful appearance 
is of special importance, but on account of the considerable 
content of cadmium and bismuth, the alloy is rather ex- 
pensive and finds but limited application. Castings of small 
animals, insects, lizards, etc., have been prepared with it, 
which in regard to sharpness were equal to the best gal- 
vano-plastic products. Plaster of Paris is poured over the 
animal to be cast, and after sharply drying, the whole 
animal is withrawn from the mould and the latter filled up 
with Lipowitz's metal. The mould is then placed in a 
vessel containing water, and by heating the latter tc the 
boiling point the metal is melted and deposits itself in the 
finest impressions of the mouid. 

The alloy is very suitable for soldering tin, lead, etc., and 
on account of its silver-white color is especially adapted 
for soldering Britannia metal and nickel. But the costliness 
of the alloy prevents its general use for this purpose, and 
cheaper alloys having nearly the same properties as Lipo- 
witz's metal have been prepared. 

Cadmium alloy {melting point 170 F.) — Cadmium 2 
parts, tin 3, lead 11, bismuth 16. 

Cadmitim alloy {melting-point 167 F.). — Cadmium 10 
parts, tin 3, lead 8, bismuth 8. 

Cadmiitm alloy {melting-point 203° F.). — The follow- 
ing compositions have all the same melting-point (203°F.). 



or 


4 


or 


3 


or 


IS 


or 


3 



380 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Parts. 

7. II. III? 

Cadmium 1 1 1 

Tin 2 3 1 

Bismuth 3 5 2 

Very fusible alloy. — An alloy with a melting point of 
150 F. is composed of: — 

Parts. 

Tin 1 

Lead 2 

Bismuth 4 

Cadmium 1 

Wood's alloy or metal melts between 140 and 161. 5 F. 
It is composed of lead 4 parts, tin 2, bismuth 5 to 8, cad- 
mium 1 to 2. In color it resembles platinum, and is malle-. 
able to a certain extent. 

Cadmium alloy (melting -point 179. 5 F.). — Cadmium 1 
part, lead 6, bismuth 7. This alloy, like the preceding, can 
be used for soldering in hot water. 

Cadmium alloy (melting-point 300 F.). — Cadmium 2 
parts, tin 4, lead 2. This alloy yields an excellent soft sol- 
der, with a melting-point of about 86° below that consist- 
ing of lead and tin alone. 

Cliche metal. — An alloy consisting of lead 50 parts, tin 
36, and cadmium 22^, is especially adapted for the prepara- 
tion of cliches, since with as low a melting-point as the 
cliche metals (of bismuth alloys) generally used, it com- 
bining the valuable property of greater hardness. With a 
cliche of this alloy, a large number of sharp impressions are 
obtained. 

According to Hauer, the melting-points of fusible alloys 
are proportionate to the atomic composition, thus : 





CADMIUM ALLOYS. 






Formula. 


Melting point. 


I. 


CdSnPbBi. 


iSS-i° F. 


2. 


Cd,Sn,Pb 4 Bi,. 


153-5° " 


3- 


Cd 4 Sn,Pb 5 Bi 5 . 


150. 0° " 


4. 


CdPb (i Bi 7 . 


190.4 " 


5- 


CdPb s Bi 2 . 


193-0° " 


6. 


Cd,Pb 7 Bi 4 . 


203. 0° " 



381 



The above formulas correspond to the following percent- 
age compositions : — 

















Cadmium 

Tin 

Lead 

Bismuth 


17.31 

18.24 
32.00 
32.45 


13.6 
19.0 
33-4 
34-0 


14.3 
16.0 
33-1 
36.6 


4.0 

44.0 
52.0 


9-7 

54-0 
36.3 


8.9 

57-7 
33-4 



It is sometimes claimed that cadmium alloys are not con- 
stant as to their melting-points, and that on account of the 
volatility of cadmium, the alloy will fuse with greater dif- 
ficulty the oftener it is remelted. A glance at the above 
figures shows plainly that cadmium cannot volatilize at 
these temperatures, and, further, a series of experiments 
made especially for the purpose, has shown that the alloys 
can be melted as often as desired without their melting 
points being sensibly changed. It may, however, happen 
that the alloys, originally homogeneous, may by liquation 
separate into several alloys with different melting-points, if 
a large quantity of it be allowed to Stand in a melted state 
for a long time. This can, however, be readily prevented 
by not keeping the alloy in a liquid state until this liquation 
takes place, which requires many hours, and if it does take 
place, by vigorous stirring of the melted alloy. 

The alloys of cadmium with mercury (cadmium amal- 
gams), will be referred to in speaking of amalgams, and 
those containing gold, which are for certain purposes used 
by gold workers, will be mentioned under gold alloys. 



CHAPTER. XIV. 
BISMUTH ALLOYS. 

Like cadmium, bismuth possesses the property of lowering 
the melting points of metals, and is, therefore, frequently- 
used in the preparation of fusible alloys, which would be 
still more extensively used if bismuth could be obtained in 
abundance and at a small cost. The alloys are now chiefly 
used in the preparation of delicate cliches, very fusible 
solders, and in the manufacture of safety-valves of a peculiar 
construction for steam boilers. 

The behavior of bismuth towards other useful metals is 
given by Guettier as follows : — 

Alloys of bismuth and copper. — These alloys are easily 
effected notwithstanding the difference in the points of 
fusion of the two metals. They are brittle and of a pale-red 
color whatever the proportions employed. Their specific 
gravity is sensibly equal to the average of the two metals. 

Alloys of bismuth and zinc. — These alloys are seldom made 
and produce a metal more brittle, presenting a large crys- 
tallization with less adherence than zinc or bismuth taken 
singly. On that account they are useless in the arts. 

Alloys of bismuth and tin. — The combinations of bismuth 
and tin take place easily and in all proportions. A very 
small quantity of bismuth imparts to tin more hardness, 
sonorousness, luster and fusibility. On that account and 
for certain applications a little bismuth is added to tin to 
increase its hardness, However, bismuth being easily oxi- 
dized and often containing arsenic, the alloys of tin and 
bismuth would be dangerous for the manufacture of domes- 
tic utensils such as culinary vessels, pots, etc. 

The alloys of tin and bismuth are more fusible than each 
of the metals taken separately. An alloy of equal parts of 

( 382 ) 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 383 

the two metals is fusible between 212 and 302 F. When 
tin is alloyed with as little as 5 per cent, of bismuth, its 
oxide acquires the peculiar yellowish-gray color of the bis- 
muth oxide. According to Rudberg, melted bismuth 
begins to solidify at 507 F., and tin at 550 F. For the 
alloys of the two metals the "constant point" is 289 F. 

Alloys of bismuth and lead. — These two metals are im- 
mediately alloyed by simple fusion with merely the ordinary 
precautions. The alloys are malleable and ductile as long 
as the proportion of bismuth does not exceed that of lead. 
Their fracture is lamellar, and their specific gravity greater 
than the mean specific gravity of either metal taken singly. 
An alloy of equal parts of bismuth and lead has a specific 
gravity equal to 10.71. It is white, lustrous, sensibly harder 
than lead, and more malleable. The ductility and mallea- 
bility diminish with an increased proportion of bismuth, 
while they increase with the excess of lead in the alloy. 
An alloy of bismuth 1 part and lead 2 is very ductile, and 
may be laminated into thin sheets without cracks. Ac- 
cording to Berthier, its point of fusion is 33 1° F. 

Alloys of bismuth and iron. — Authorities disagree as to 
the possibility of combining bismuth and iron. The pres- 
ence of bismuth in iron renders the metal btittle. 

It will be seen, from the preceding data, that the alloys 
of bismuth are not at present of importance in the arts ex- 
cepting the fusible alloys made of bismuth and certain 
white metals, such as tin, lead etc., and a few others. 

Alloys of bismuth with antimony . — The alloys of these 
two metals alone are grayish, britle, and lamellar. In order 
to remove the brittleness, varying quantities of tin and lead 
are added, whereby their fusibility rather increases than 
decreases. Alloys containing the above metals are much 
used in the preparation of Britannia and Queen's metals, 
but they are also employed for some special purposes of 
which the following are examples : 

Cliche metal. — This alloy is composed of tin 48 parts, 



384 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

lead 32.5, bismuth 9, and antimony 10.5. It is especially- 
suitable for dabbing rollers for printing cotton goods, and, 
possessing a considerable degree of hardness, it wears well. 
For filling out defective places in metallic castings, the 
following alloy can be used to advantage : Bismuth 1 part, 
antimony 3, lead 8. 

Alloys of bismuth, tin, and lead. — The compounds ob- 
tained by alloying these metals have a somewhat higher 
melting point than the cadmium alloys. They have, how- 
ever, been known for a long time, and are used for various 
purposes. 

JSiewtori s metal consists of bismuth 8 parts, lead 5, tin 
3. It melts at 202 F. 

Rose's alloys consist of : — 

I. II. 

Bismuth 2 8 % ^ 

Tin i 3 I Ej_ 

Lead 1 %) V 

The first of these alloys melts at 200. 75 ° F., and the 
other at 174.20 F. These alloys were formerly used in the 
preparation of the so-called safety-plates which were inserted 
in the tops of steam boilers. The composition of these 
plates was such that they became fluid at a determined 
temperature corresponding to a certain steam pressure in 
the interior of the boiler, thus giving the steam a chance to 
escape through the aperture formed. Such plates acted as 
a sort of safety-valve, and were intended to prevent the ex- 
plosion of the boiler with too high a tension of steam. 

At the present time their use has, however, been almost 
entirely abandoned, it having been found that boilers pro- 
vided with these plates would explode, without a previous 
melting of the plates. A chemical and physical examination 
has shown that, by long-continued heating of the plates, 
alloys are formed whose melting points are much higher 
than those of the compositions originally used. The fol- 
lowing table gives the compositions of some alloys which 
are said to melt, if the pressure of the steam exceeds that 
indicated : — 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 



385 



Bismuth. 


Lead. 

5 


Tin. 


Melting point. 
Degrees F. 


Corresponding 

pressure of steam 

in atmosphere. 


8 


3 


212 


1 


8 


8 


4 


235-9 


1% 


8 


8 


8 


253.9 


2 


8 


10 


8 


266 


2^ 


8 


12 


8 


270.3 


3 


8 


16 


14 


289.5 


y/* 


8 


16 


12 


300.6 


4 


8 


22 


24 


308.8 


5 


8 


32 


36 


320.3 


6 


8 


32 


28 


331.7 


7 


8 


30 


24 


341.6 


8 



Onion s fusible alloy consists of lead 3 parts, tin 2, bis- 
muth 5. It melts at 197 F. 

D' Arcet's fusible alloys. Mr. D'Arcet gives the follow- 
ing proportions for fusible alloys : — 





Parts. 






No. 








Remarks. 










Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 




1 


7 


2 


4 


Softens at 212 F., without melting. 


2 


8 


2 


6 


Softens at 212 F., easily oxidized. 


3 


8 


2 


4 


\ Softens more or less at 212 F. No. 4 


4 


16 


4 


7 


\ becoming softer than either No. 3 or 


5 


9 


2 


4 


i No. 5. 


b 


16 


5 


7 


Becomes nearly fluid at 212 F. 


7 


8 


3 


4 


Becomes quite liquid at 212° F. 


8 


8 


4 


4 


Becomes very liquid at 212 F. 


9 


8 


7 


1 


Becomes soft at 212 F., but does not melt. 


10 


16 


15 


1 


Neither liquid nor soft at 212 F. 


II 


8 


5 


3 


Melts at 205 F. 


12 


8 


6 


2 


Melts at 205 F. 


13 


16 


9 


7 


Becomes very liquid at 212 F. 



These alloys are generally hard, but may be cut. Their frac- 
ture is a dead blackish-gray. They are rapidly tarnished in 
the air, and more so in boiling water, in which they become 
covered with a wrinkled pellicle which falls as a black powder. 

Lichtenbergs metal. — Bismuth 5 parts, lead 3, tin 2. 
Melts at 197 F. 

25 



386 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Bismuth alloys for delicate castings. — For the preparation 
of castings of delicate articles, and taking impressions from 
dies, medals, etc., bismuth alloys of the following composi- 
tions have been recommended : — : 

Parts. 



I. II. III. IV. 

Bismuth 6 5 2 8 

Tin 3 2 1 3 

Lead 13 3 1 5 

On cooling, these alloys expand strongly, and, conse- 
quently, fill out the finest depressions and elevations. 

Bismuth alloy for cementing glass. — Most cements in 
use are dissolved by petroleum, or, at least, softened. The 
following alloy, which melts at 212 F., is, however, not 
attacked by petroleum, and is therefore well adapted for 
fastening the metal parts upon glass lamps : Lead 3 parts, 
tin 2, bismuth 2.5. 

The following table, made by Messrs. Parkes and Martin, 
indicates the various points of fusion of the fusible combi- 
nations of bismuth, lead, and tin : — 



Parts. 




| 


Parts. 












Temperature \ 








Temperature 








of fusion, t 








of fusion. 








Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Degrees F. 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 
24 


Degrees F. 


8 


5 


3 


202° 


8 


16 


3i6° 


8 


6 


3 


208 


8 


18 


24 


312 


8 


8 


3 


226 


8 


20 


24 


310 


8 


8 


4 


236 


8 


22 


24 


308 


8 


8 


6 


243 


8 


24 


24 


310 


8 


8 


8 


254 


8 


26 


24 


320 


8 


10 


8 


266 


8 


28 


24 


330 


8 


12 


8 


270 


8 


30 


24 


342 


8 


16 


8 


300 


8 


32 


24 


352 


8 


16 


10 


304 


8 


32 


28 


332 


8 


16 


12 


294 


8 


32 


30 


328 


8 


16 


14 


290 


8 


32 


32 


320 


8 


16 


16 


292 


8 


32 


34 


3i8 


8 


16 


18 


298 


8 


32 


36 


320 


8 


16 


20 


304 


8 


32 


38 


322 


8 


16 


22 


312 


8 


32 


40 


324 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 387 

These alloys are valuable baths for tempering small steel 
tools. They give a very exact temperature, which may be 
adjusted to the purpose intended. They are used, according 
to Thurston,* by placing the article on the surface of the 
unmelted alloy and gradually heating until fusion occurs and 
they fall below the surface, at which moment their temper- 
ature is right ; they are then removed and quickly cooled in 
water. It is not easy, even if possible at all, to give as uni- 
form a temperature by the ordinary processes of heating or 
to obtain the exact heat desired, and the quality of the tool 
is not so easy of adjustment by any other method. 

Alloys of lead and bismuth have also been tried. They 
are too easily oxidized, and are difficult to make on account 
of the separation of the lead. An alloy of equal parts of 
bismuth and lead possesses a toughness from fifteen to 
twenty times that of lead. 

Alloys of bismuth and tin succeed better; those which 
are best known are — 

Bismuth. Tin. Melts at about. 

50 parts. 50 parts 310 F. 

33 " 67 " 325 

20 " 80 " 480 

The first alloy (equal parts of bismuth and tin) is called 
cutlanego, and the oxide of it makes a white enamel. 

Very fusible alloy. This alloy which is suitable for many 
applications in the arts is composed of bismuth 48 parts, 
cadmium 13, lead 19, tin 26. It melts at about 158 F., and, 
consequently, at a lower temperature than that at which 
the so-called "magic spoon" melts in a cup of tea. It is 
said to resist great pressure. 

* Brasses, Bronzes and other Alloys, p. 196. 



CHAPTER XV. 

IRON-ALLOYS (ALLOY STEELS.) 

The substances which combine with iron, and alloy with 
it, are derived either from the raw materials — ores, fluxes, 
reducing material — in short the charge used in the manu- 
facture of the iron, and are therefore unavoidable and fre- 
quently troublesome associates of the latter, or they are 
intentionally added in definite quantities in order to pro- 
duce an iron-alloy suitable for certain industrial purposes. 

In the first case it is scarcely possible to regulate as much 
as would be desirable the quantity of the constituents, and 
thereby, their influence upon the properties of the iron. 
Thus, copper, sulphur and phosphorus are to a certain 
extent associates of commercial iron manufactured on a 
large scale and cannot be removed, they remaining as 
troublesome admixtures, and relatively small quantities of 
them may impair the value of the iron for certain applica- 
tions. 

Hence iron as found in commerce may be considered 
more or less of an alloy. Perfectly pure iron which can 
be electro-chemically prepared at great expense is not 
worked at all. The relatively purest iron which can be 
made by smelting processes on a large scale, contains 
about 99.6 per cent, of iron and 0.4 per cent, of other con- 
stituents, chiefly carbon and secondarily, phosphorus, sul- 
phur, copper, manganese, silicon. The color of such iron 
is pale gray, its tensile strength in pieces of larger cross- 
sections is about 30 kilogrammes per square millimeter, 
and considerably more with smaller cross-sections. It is 
furthermore very tenacious, has a specific gravity of 7.8, 
and melts at about 2732 F. The most important, never 

(388) 



IRON ALLOYS. 389 

wanting constituent of iron is carbon ; it is derived from 
the reducing material of the charge and exerts a peculiar 
influence upon the properties of iron. However, there is 
a limit to the capacity of iron of alloying with carbon, the 
greatest amount of carbon which pure iron can absorb 
being about 4 to 4.5 per cent. ; iron with the largest con- 
tent of carbon melts at about 1922 F. Iron with about 
1 per cent, carbon possesses the greatest tensile strength, 
but its tenacity is not very great. With an increase in the 
content of carbon, the tensile strength decreases and brit- 
tleness increases. 

The content of carbon serves as a distinctive mark of the 
different varieties of iron. Iron with less than 2.6 per 
cent, carbon is called malleable iron, and with more than 
2.6 per cent., pig iron, the former containing as a rule less 
than 1.5 per cent., and the latter over 3 per cent. The 
malleable varieties of iron with more than 0.5 per cent, 
carbon are distinguished by special hardness and strength, 
and are called steel, while those poorer in carbon are softer 
and not so strong, but more tenacious, are termed wrought 
iron. However, this classification according to the content 
of carbon cannot always be carried out, other points re- 
garding the differences in the above-mentioned varieties of 
iron having to be taken into consideration. 

Another admixture which frequently occurs, besides 
carbon, is silicon. It is derived from the raw material used 
for the production of the iron; in malleable iron it does not 
exceed 1 per cent., and in pig iron to be used for industrial 
purposes, not 3 per cent. A comparatively large content 
of silicon causes in pig iron rich in carbon, when cooling, 
a separation of carbon in the form of graphite, more of the 
latter being separated in slow, and less in rapid, cooling. 
However, in any case, the iron, by this separation of carbon 
in the form of graphite, acquires essentially other properties. 
Pig iron rich in graphite is less brittle and hard, and is 
called gray pig iron or fotmdry pig, while pig iron free 



390 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

from graphite is very hard and brittle, has a silver-white 
fracture and is called white pig iron. With only a moder- 
ate content of carbon and a comparatively small content of 
silicon — about 3.5 per cent, carbon and 0.8 to 1 per cent, 
silicon — the separation of graphite can be entirely prevented 
by rapid cooling ; the production of chill castings is based 
upon this possibility. Iron-silicon alloys with up to 20 per 
cent, silicon are sometimes intentionally produced. They 
are, however, not directly worked into articles of use but 
serve for certain purposes in iron works. 

The manganese which also occurs in iron, is, as a rule, 
not intentionally added, but is reduced in smelting from 
manganiferous iron ores and absorbed by the iron. In 
malleable iron the content of manganese amounts generally 
to 1 per cent., and in foundry pig to about 1.5 per cent. 
A larger content of manganese in these varieties of iron 
would increase their hardness and brittleness, and exert an 
injurious influence upon their capacity of being worked. 

For special purposes iron is sometimes alloyed with up 
to 14 per cent, of manganese in order to produce the so- 
called manganese-steel, which is distinguished by great 
hardness. 

Ferro-manganese with up to 85 per cent, of manganese 
is intentionally produced to be used as addition in iron 
works, especially in the manufacture of mild steel. 

The ferro-manganese is usually added to the melted steel 
after it is tapped into the ladle. For ordinary steels the 
ferro-manganese is used for the removal of oxygen from 
the metal, so that a considerable proportion of the man- 
ganese finds its way into the slag leaving only 0.5 to 1 per 
cent, of manganese in the finished steel. This quantity 
seems to have almsot no influence on the physical properties 
of the steel except to counteract the tendency to red-short- 
ness ; but as the percentage of manganese approaches 3 
per cent, an excessive brittleness shows itself, rendering the 
metal almost useless ; and when 5 to 6 per cent, is reached, 



IRON ALLOYS. 39I 

the steel is so hard and brittle that it can readily be 
powdered by crushing. However, when 7 per cent, of 
manganese is exceeded an extraordinary change takes 
place immediately, and with from 8 to 20 per cent, man- 
ganese an alloy known as Hadfield's manganese steel is 
obtained, which possesses remarkable characteristics. An 
excellent quality of razors and axes have been made from 
Hadfield steel containing 13.75 P er cent, manganese and 
0.85 per cent, of carbon. This alloy, after forging and 
water-toughening gave, on testing, a tensile strength of 65 
tons per square inch, and almost 51 per cent, elongation. 

The use of manganese steel is likely to be restricted. on 
account of the difficulty of machining and filing it, but it 
can be partially softened by treatment in the following 
manner: The tool is heated to very little over 1832° F., 
and suddenly quenched in cold water nearly at the freezing 
point, when the metal becomes soft enough to be easily 
filed or even planed. To restore the former hardness, heat- 
ing to a bright red heat (say 1382 F.) and slowly cooling 
in the air is sufficient. 

The main use of manganese steel is confined to purposes 
where extreme hardness is necessary, such as the working 
faces of crushing mills and grinding machinery. Car 
wheels, also railway crossings are frequently made of this 
alloy.* 

Chrome-steel. — According to the investigations of Berth- 
ier, Fremy, Smith and others, iron and chromium unite in 
all proportions by strongly heating a mixture of the oxides 
of iron and chromium in brasqued crucibles, adding pow- 
dered charcoal if the oxide of chromium is in excess, and 
fluxes to scorify the earthy matter and prevent oxidation. 
According to Howe,t this is substantially the same method 
for preparing ferro-chrome as employed at Brooklyn, New 

* Greenwood " Steel and Iron." 
t Metallurgy of Steel, p. 75. 



392 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

York, and Unieux Works in France, where chrome-steel 
has been produced in large quantities for a number of 
years. According to the method of Guetat and Chavanne * 
a neutral solution of potassium calcium chromate or of 
sodium calcium chromate is mixed with an equivalent 
quantity of ferrous chloride, the precipitate of ferric chrom- 
ate washed, roasted, mixed with a sufficient quantity of 
coal dust, and heated to a white heat in a well-luted cruc- 
ible, in which the ferro-chrome fuses together to a regulus. 

The ferro-chrome from Kapfenberg in Styria contains, 
according to Schneider, 44.5 per cent, chromium and 48.2 
per cent, iron, besides fixed carbon. From this and simi- 
lar alloys the iron may be extracted with dilute hydrochloric 
acid, or with chloride of copper, whereby acicular crystals 
of the composition Fe 4 C.Cri2C 4 remain behind. 

Chrome-steel is easily made by adding ferro-chrome to 
nearly finished steel in the furnace. Ferro-chrome with 
about 40 per cent, chromium is employed, and allowance is 
made for about 20 per cent, loss in the slag, which must be 
basic. For high-class tool steels it is preferable to use a 
refined ferro-chrome alloy containing from 60 to 75 per 
cent, chromium, made by reducing chrome iron ore in 
crucibles. 

The effect of chromium in steel is, in general, to raise the 
tensile strength as the percentage of chromium increases 
without diminishing at the same time the ductility seriously. 
Up to 1 per cent, of chromium has little or no effect, either 
on the tensile strength or hardness of the steel even on 
quenching. In the absence of carbon, as much as 4 per 
cent, of chromium produces no greater hardening than the 
same quantity of aluminium, but with about 1 per cent, of 
carbon and from 2 to 3 per cent, of chromium, great stiff- 
ness with undiminished toughness is attained. Such a ma- 
terial is suitable for armor-piercing projectiles, if suitably 

*Jahresberichte der chemischen Technologic 1883, p. 220. 



IRON ALLOYS. 393 

hardened and tempered to give the formation of the in- 
tensely hard carbides of iron and chromium, suitable for 
penetration of armor plates. 

Low-carbon chrome-steels can be forged well with up to 
about 12 per cent, chromium present but, as the carbon 
increases, forging makes the steel hard and brittle. This 
brittleness can, however, be easily removed by annealing, 
and the steel is rendered excessively hard by quenching in 
water. 

In addition to shells, chrome- steel with about 1.2 per 
cent, of chromium is very suitable for making files. Other 
uses of this alloy are the manufacture of locomotive springs, 
tires and axles ; dies and shoes for stamp batteries, and any 
tools requiring great hardness. Armor plate is frequently 
now made with a combined chrome-nickel steel. For safes, 
alternate layers of chrome-steel and wrought iron are 
welded together and cooled suddenly. The hardness of the 
quenched chromium steel resists the burglar's drill, while 
the ductility of the wrought iron resists the blows of his 
sledge-hammer. . 

Under the microscope the effect of chromium on steel is 
seen to be an interference with, the growth of the iron 
crystals, the granular structure being very minute, and this, 
no doubt, accounts for the modifications which the chro- 
mium effects on the mechanical properties of steels. The 
effect is not proportional to the chromium content, small 
percentages being more active than larger amounts. At 
first the chromium seems to dissolve in the steel, but as 
the amount increases, a double carbide of iron and chro- 
mium is formed, which possesses great hardness. This 
occurs in the steel either as isolated globules, or it may be 
dissolved in the metallic matrix (on annealing at 2192 F.), 
bestowing a very high degree of hardness on the alloy. 

Tungsten steel. — Although tungsten by itself melts only 
with great difficulty, it readily unites with iron, forming an 
alloy known as ferro-tungsten. Such an alloy containing 



394 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

about 80 per cent, of tungsten is, for the preparation of 
tungsten-steel, added to the steel whilst in the ladle. It is, 
however, preferable to use crucibles for melting in the 
alloy for special high-grade tool-steel. Tungsten-steel 
does not make sound castings except with the addition of 
a small quantity of aluminium and silicon ; the fluidity of 
the alloy is slightly less than that of ordinary steel. The 
general effect of tungsten in steel is to make it intensely 
hard and brittle. It is very difficult to forge, and it can- 
not be welded when the content of tungsten exceeds 2 per 
cent. One peculiarity of tungsten-steel is that in the 
absence of carbon its strength or hardness is not increased 
by tempering. With a higher content of tungsten the steel 
can be worked only with the greatest difficulty. The 
higher grades cannot be worked with the file, and as none 
of them can be tempered, they must be shaped at one 
forging, and then ground to the form desired. Tungsten- 
steel may be cast in the form of tools which can be ground 
to a fine edge. Like chrome-steel, tungsten-steel can be 
readily worked at a red heat, but has to be handled with 
the greatest care to obtain the best results. An addition 
of tungsten gives to steel a very fine and uniformly crys- 
talline structure, and such steel is less affected by the 
atmosphere than ordinary steel. Tungsten-steel may also 
be prepared by adding metallic tungsten to the melted 
steel in a crucible. 

Bending tests conducted on bars of tungsten-steel show 
that, as cast, the increase of the percentage of tungsten 
gradually diminishes the toughness, especially after 3.5 per 
cent, of tungsten is reached, this point being comparable 
with 1% per cent, of tungsten if the bars are annealed at 
about 1652 F., and then water-quenched, when a distinct 
hardening is noticeable. Unlike either the manganese or 
nickel steels, which, although brittle during the range from 
3 to 7 per cent, for manganese and from 10 to 15 per cent, 
for nickel, become tough with higher percentages, tung- 



IRON ALLOYS. 395 

sten-steel does not show this peculiar return to toughness, 
since the angle through which the bars bend decreases 
with the increase of tungsten. 

On fracture the tungsten-steels show very marked 
peculiarity. First a very fine crystalline structure com- 
mences with 1.5 per cent, of tungsten, and up to 7 per 
cent., the grain is extremely close, but not silky. This 
characteristic appearance of silkiness only appears when the 
carbon content exceeds 1% per cent, and is apparently, 
therefore due to the presence of a carbide of tungsten in 
association with the carbide of iron. 

Tungsten-steels with a high content of carbon are very 
retentive of magnetism, and an alloy with 5 per cent, tung- 
sten, with 0.62 per cent, carbon and 0.55 per cent, manga- 
nese, is found very suitable for the manufacture of perma- 
nent magnets in electric meters. The highest magnetic 
power attainable with the greatest retentiveness is reached 
when the tungsten content is varied between 4 and 7 per 
cent. Low-carbon steels with tungsten do not show this 
magnetic retentiveness. 

The special use of tungsten is for the production of self- 
hardening steels, that is, those which can be made hard 
enough to retain a cutting edge by heat treatment alone, 
without water-quenching. Such steels, if plunged when 
red hot into water, simply crack or split. They usually 
contain from 5 to 8 per cent, of tungsten, with 1.5 to 2.5 
per cent, of carbon. The following are some typical 
analyses of special tungsten-steels. * 

Analysis per cent. 

Carbon Tungsten Manganese Silicon Chromium 

Mushet (Osborn) 1.65 5.8 2.12 1.36 0.45 

Allevard 0.42 6.22 0.29 0.5 — 

Mushet (ordinary) 2.0 7.81 0.19 0.9 — 

Mushet (special) 2.3 8.22 1.72 1.60 — 

* Greenwood. " Steel and Iron." 



396 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The first mentioned steel is peculiar in that it can be 
successfully softened for machining by heating to the 
temperature of incipient redness (about 932 F.) and 
quenching in water. 

The second-named steel, of French manufacture, can, by 
quenching in water at 1112 F., be rendered (a) very 
hard ; (b) of only medium hardness ; or (c) quite soft, ac- 
cording as the temperature of the preliminary heating is 
raised to (a) 2372 F. : (b) 1832 F. ; or (c) 1562 F. 

The Taylor and White special " quick speed " cutting 
steels with 5 per cent, of tungsten, 4 per cent, of molyb- 
denum and 4 per cent, of chromium can be worked at a 
red heat without losing their cutting edge. The temper of 
tools made from this alloy cannot readily be destroyed even 
when the rate of cutting makes the working face of the 
tool approach a low red heat. 

Vanadium-steel.— -The element vanadium was discovered 
about a century ago in a lead ore from Zimapan, Mexico, 
by the Mexican mineralogist Del Rio who, by reason of its 
forming red salts, christened it erythronium. This dis- 
covery, however, was later on discredited, Collet-Descotils 
declaring erythronium to be impure chromium and the 
mineral from which it was obtained, a lead chromate. 
Wohler, however, later on proved the mineral to be lead 
vanadate. In 1830 the element was re-discovered by Sef- 
strom, in bar iron from Eckersholm, Sweden, and was 
called by him vanadium in deference to the Scandinavian 
deity Vanadis (a by-name of the goddess Freia). The 
element was isolated, about thirty years later, by Sir Henry 
Roscoe. 

While vanadium was formerly considered only of scientific 
interest, it has during the past few years sprung into the 
position of a metal which has practically marked an epoch 
in the history of the steel-trade, its alloy with iron, known 
as vanadium-steel forming a highly valuable material in the 
construction of automobiles, locomotives, etc. 



IRON ALLOYS. * 397 

It was already surmised by Dick that a small content of 
vanadium would increase the ductility of iron, and Helouise* 
also concluded that by an addition of vanadium, steel would 
be rendered especially tenacious. He arrived at this con- 
clusion from the fact that Taberg wrought iron, which con- 
tains vanadium, is the softest of all Swedish brands of iron, 
and that many blast-furnace cinders in Staffordshire, Eng- 
land, where a very ductile iron is produced, show a consid- 
erable content of vanadic acid. To clear up the matter, he 
prepared aluminium- vanadium by reducing vanadium by 
means of aluminium powder, and from this made alloys of 
vanadium with ferro-aluminium, ferro-nickel and ferro- 
cyanide, and added them to liquid steel in a crucible. The 
steel, produced by the basic process, showed a compressive 
strength of 48 kilogrammes and an elongation of 16.9 per 
cent. By being previously melted, without an addition, in 
a graphite crucible, it absorbed much carbon, and then 
showed a compressive strength of 96 kilogrammes and an 
elongation of only 2.3 per cent. The basic steel was then 
treated three different ways : 

a. The raw material together with 1 per cent, vanadium 
was remelted in a graphite crucible. The sample when 
forged, but without being annealed, showed a compressive 
strength of 109 kilogrammes and an elongation of 7.53 per 
cent. 

b. Steel with 0.5 per cent, vanadium in a crucible 
brasqued with magnesia had a compressive strength of 66 
kilogrammes, and an elongation of 16 per cent. 

c. With 1 per cent, vanadium, a compressive strength of 
97 kilogrammes and an elongation of 14 per cent., and 
when annealed a compressive strength of 71 kilogrammes 
and an elongation of 20 per cent. 

The latter material which is very soft by itself acquires, 
on hardening, an extraordinary degree of hardness. White 

* Stahl and Eisen, 1896, No. 16. 



398 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



iron with a compressive strength of 38 to 39 kilogrammes 
and an elongation of 19 per cent, showed, with an addition 
of 0.5 per cent, vanadium, a compressive strength of 61.25 
kilogrammes and an elongation of 12 per cent, in an unan- 
nealed state, and after annealing a compressive strength of 
53 kilogrammes and an elongation of 32 per cent. 

According to J. Kent Smith,* two varieties of steel, 
otherwise equal, but one of which contains 0.53 per cent, 
vanadium, show the following properties. 



Tensile strength 

Limit of elasticity. 

Ductility ■ 

Reduction of cross-section 




Without 
vanadium. 



62.50 

35-70 

8.00 

7.80 



After annealing, 



Soft steel 

Same with 1 per cent, vanadium 
The latter annealed 



Tensile 
strength 
in tons. 



30 
61 

45 



Ductility 
in per cent. 



17 
14 
20 



Effect in wrought iron. 



Wrought iron 

Same with 0.5 per cent, vanadium, hardened. 
Thejatter annealed 



Tensile 
strength 
in tons. 



24-5 

39 

33 



Ductility 
in per cent. 



19 
12 

32 



Bending tests by Professor Arnold have shown that 
vanadium-steel will stand a much higher alternating stress 
than steels containing any of the other alloys. A high 

*Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 20, 1183. 



IRON ALLOYS. 



399 



carbon may break at ioo alternations. Steels of the best 
acid or open-hearth casting will run as high as 290. An 
excellent quality of nickel-steel ran to 270, while vanadium- 
steel has attained as high as 570, or nearly 100 per cent, 
better than a good nickel compound. 

To get the best results vanadium must be used in ex- 
tremely small quantities. A little goes a great way, too 
much being as useless as not enough. 

In speaking of vanadium in an address before the Central 
Railway Club at Buffalo, N. Y., March 8, 1907, Mr. J. 
Kent Smith says: "Its action is very powerful; it may be 
said that vanadium is to metallurgy what strychnine is to 
medicine, and therefore it is only used in small quantities." 

" Vanadium increases the strength of steel ' per se,' but 
to the greatest extent by acting through another con- 
stituent (present in such quantities as not to dynamically 
'poison' the steel in question), while it confers in itself to 
steel properties of great dynamic value. This first is ex- 
emplified by the following table." 

Comparative effects of chromium and vanadium on static tests. 



Rolled Bars Untreated. 



Crucible Steels 

Plain carbon-manganese ■ 

+ o.s per cent, chromium 

+ 1.0 " " 

+ 0.1 vanadium 

+ O.T5 " 

+ 0.25 

4- 1 per cent, chromium 4- ) 
vanadium | ' 
chrom'um + ) 
0.25 " vanadium J ' 

Open-hearth Steels 

Plain carbon-manganese 

+ 10 per cent. "J 

Chrom'um +0-15 "' >- 

Vanadium ) 



.IS 



Lbs. per sq. 

in. elastic 

limit. 



Lbs. per 
sq. in. 

' 35,840 
51.296 
56,000 
63,840 
6?,oq6 

' 76,384 



90,496 

39,648 
77.056 



U ten™ne e EI ° n gation Reduction 
stress. I on2i n- of area. 



Lbs. per 
sq. in. 

60,480 
76,160 
85,568 
77,052 
8i,75o 
88, 32 



135,296 

72,128 
116,480 



Per cent. 



18.5 



Per cent. 

60.0 
60.6 
57-3 
60.0 
590 
59-0 

56.6 

46.3 
52.6 
55 5 



''Vanadium, however, can be regarded as a 'master' 
alloy, in that it can act in totally different ways, and by 
judiciously using it in the line one wishes to follow, steels 



40o 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



of great dynamic super-excellence, great static super-excel- 
lence, or with combinations of both, are attainable, such as 
can be obtained by no other known means." 
"The following table illustrates type of this :" 

Automobile purposes are taken owing to requirements of same being of the most 
exigent nature. 



Nature. 



Tests. 



Yield Point (lbs. sq. in.) 



Static •• 



Ultimate Stress- 
Ratio •• 

1 Elongation p. c. on 2 in- 

I Reduction of Area 

I Torsional Twists 



Intermediate Alternating Bends- 



Resistance to Pendulum 
Impact Cft. lbs.). 

Alternating Impact 

Number of Stresses • 

Dynamic ••{ Falling Weight on 

Notched Bar, Number 

of Blows. 

Rotary Vibrations, Num- 
ber of Revolutions 



I 

Carbon 
"Axle" 
Stock. 


2 

Nickel 
"Axle" 
Stock. 


3 

Vanadium 
Axle Steel. 


4L330 
65,840 
.62 
42 
6i# 
2.6 


49,27° 

87.360 

-56 

33^ 

58/. 

3-2 


63,570 

94,080 

.66 

6i# 
4.2 


10 


12 


18 


12.3 
960 

25 
6,200 


14 

800 

35 

I0.C00 


16.5 
2,700 

69 
67,500 



4 I 5 

Vanadium Vanadium 
Ciank- "Continual 
Shaft I Mesh" 
Steel. Gear Steel. 



110,100 

127,800 

•87 



S8tf 
2.5 



224.000 

232,750 

-96 



i.3 



12 
i,8;o 

76 



6 

800 



N. B. — All figures obtained under comparative conditions- 

The initial material for the preparation of vanadium-steel 
is vanadate (lead vanadate), which in a comminuted state is 
brought into double its weight of saltpeter-cake. After the, 
at first, violent effervescence, the mass which becomes 
gradually thicker is moderately heated for 20 to 30 minutes, 
and then drawn off. The solidified melt is pulverized, 
washed with water and for several hours thoroughly stirred, 
steam being at the same time introduced. Iron plates are 
then for four to six hours suspended in the vessel, whereby 
the contents of the latter separate into a white precipitate 
containing lead sulphate, silicic acid and unchanged ore, 
and into a dark green to blue fluid which contains the 
vanadium as sulphate or double sulphate. The fluid is 
siphoned off and compounded with 25 per cent, soda-lye so 



IRON ALLOYS. 4OI 

long - as a precipitate is formed. This precipitate is filtered 
in a filtering press, washed and dried ; it forms a black 
mass which contains 18 per cent, vanadic anhydride V 2 O s . 

The oxide mixture thus obtained may be reduced ac- 
cording to Goldschmidt's process by igniting, by means of 
a fulminating pellet, 15 parts of the oxide mixture with 4.5 
parts of aluminium whereby a regulus is obtained which 
contains 14.9 per cent, vanadium, 58.1 per cent, iron, 26 
per cent, aluminium ; and 1.5 per cent, silicon. Or the 
oxide mixture is reduced in an electric furnace by heating 
8 parts of it with 2 parts charcoal to the melting point, 
and introducing into the melt, in small portions at a time, 
1 part of aluminium. The regulus obtained according to 
this method contains 16 per cent, vanadium, 70 per cent, 
iron, 2 per cent, silicon and 12 per cent, aluminium carbide. 

According to an article in "The Mining Journal," vana- 
dium steels may be grouped in three classes: (1) Those 
containing vanadium alone; (2) Those with vanadium and 
nickel ; and (3) vanadium and chromium. The following are 
some interesting results obtained by addition of vanadium : 

Tensile Limit of 
Strength in Elasticity in 
lbs. persq. in. lbs. per sq. in. 
Mild steel, low percentage of phos- 
phorus 60,000 35,ooo 

Mild steel, carbonized with cast iron 

in graphite crucible 62,000 47,000 

Mild steel, with 0.5 per cent, of va- 
nadium 94,000 74,000 

Mild steel, with 1 percent, of vana- 
dium, not annealed 138,000 112,000 

Mild steel, with 1 per cent. of vana- 
dium, not annealed 102, oco 82,000 

This 1 per cent, vanadium steel is usually employed for 
objects subjected to vibrations, as it resists the effects of 
traction admirably. 

The second class of vanadium steels is that containing 
vanadium and nickel. The proportion is usually 0.2 and 
26 



402 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

0.4 per cent, vanadium and 2 to 6 per cent, nickel. With 
these steels a tensile strength of 78,000 to 87,000 lbs. per 
sq. in. is obtained; elasticity of 55,000 to 70,000 lbs. persq. 
in., and elongation varying from 30 to 35 per cent. After 
tempering, the resistance to tension and limit of elasticity 
attain 220,000 and 195,000 lbs., and elongation falls from 10 
to 8 per cent. Nickel has a peculiar action, as it makes steel 
hard until 8 per cent., and from 8 per cent, to 15 per cent, 
so brittle that one can break it with a hammer; from 15 to 
25 per cent, extensibility rapidly augments to become 
almost stationary. Vanadium makes nickel steel more homo- 
geneous, decreases fragility which nickel tends to give steel, 
though we must add that it is rarely employed with more 
than 8 per cent, of nickel. Such steel, from the fact that 
nickel gives a very great resistance to impact, is specially 
suited for piston rods, connecting rods, small shafts, etc. 

In the third class of vanadium steels we have vanadium 
chrome-steels, the two best proportions for which are as 
follows : 

Carbon 0.20 0.40 per cent. 

Chromium 1 1 

Vanadium 0.20 0.20 

Chromium augments the resistance to impact and tension, 
but has a tendency to produce a very hard metal, difficult 
to work hot, and welding can only be operated successfully 
by electricity, owing to the tendency of chromium to oxi- 
dize and form slag. Chromium gives a steel difficult to 
cut and work cold, and the Carnegie Steel Company could 
find nothing better to cut this steel plate than a disk re- 
volving at a very great rate of speed. This disk, 6 ft. in 
diameter, mounted like a circular saw, cuts plates 6 ins. 
thick ; a jet of steam plays continually on the part being 
cut. Vanadium in the proportion of 0.15 to 0.25 per cent, 
counterbalances the tendency of chromium and facilitates 
cutting. 



IRON ALLOYS. 



403 



The steel is particularly suitable for crank-shafts, cranks, 
propeller shafts, locomotive and wagon axles, journals, etc. 
The following are results of experiments which clearly show 
the influence of vanadium on chrome : 



Manganese carbon steel 

The same plus 0.5 per cent, chromium . . 

" 1 " " 

" 0.10 " vanadium . . . 

" 0.15 

" 0.25 

" 1 per cent, chromium and 
0.15 per cent, vanadium . . 

" 1 per cent, chromium and 
0.25 per cent, vanadium.. 

" 1 per cent, chromium and 
0.25 per cent, vanadium 
tempered 

" 1 per cent, chromium and 
0.25 per cent, vanadium 
tempered 



c 


en 




£ s 




03 
U 


bxr" 




rt 


S °* 


*s c 


O 




tfi 


.2 g 






p ^ 


CT.O 


J5 & 


1> & 


H 


W 


rt 


56,000 


33.ooo 


60 


71,000 


46,000 


61 


80,000 


51,000 


57 


71,000 


60,000 


60 


75,000 


64,000 


59 


81,000 


71,000 


59 


101,000 


75,000 


57 


128,000 


104,000 


46 


178,000 


148,000 


48 


203.000 


188,000 


45 






35 
33 
30 
3i 
26 
24 

24 
19 



16 



Nickel-steel. — This alloy of iron with nickel has been re- 
ferred to under nickel alloys. 

Alloys of iron with other metals will be found under the 
respective headings. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
SILVER ALLOYS. 

Pure silver possesses but little hardness, and articles 
manufactured from it would be subject to considerable 
wear. For this reason silver-ware is never made of the 
pure metal, but always of alloys with other metals, except- 
ing certain chemical utensils which must be of pure silver, 
as alloys would be attacked by the substances to be manipu- 
lated in them. 

The alloys of silver are of real interest only when they 
are made with gold, copper, or aluminium. With the other 
metals, with very few exceptions, they are of no use in the 
arts. The alloys of silver and gold, and silver and copper 
are those employed for articles of luxury and for coinage. 
The alloys of silver, gold and copper are used for the same 
purpose. An alloy of silver, copper and tin is made into 
a solder for plated-ware and false jewelry. In modern 
times alloys containing silver and nickel, or silver, nickel, 
and zinc, are much used for table utensils ; they having a 
beautiful white appearance and being much cheaper than 
alloys of copper and silver, which were formerly exclusively 
used for the purpose. 

Alloys of silver and aluminium. — These alloys have 
previously been briefly referred to. Aluminium and silver 
form beautiful white alloys, considerably harder than pure 
aluminium, and take a very high polish. They have the 
advantage over copper alloys of being unchangeable on 
exposure to the air and retaining their white color. It 
has, therefore, been proposed to alloy coins with aluminium 
instead of with copper, which would render them much 

(404) 



SILVER ALLOYS. 405 

more durable, but the results of experiments made on a 
large scale were not satisfactory. 

The alloys of aluminium and silver show very varying 
physical properties according to the content of aluminium. 
An alloy consisting of ioo parts of aluminium and 5 of 
silver differs but little from pure aluminium, but is consid- 
erably harder and takes a beautiful polish. An alloy of 
aluminium 169 parts and silver 5 possesses considerable 
elasticity, and is recommended for fine watch-springs and 
dessert knives. An alloy of equal parts of aluminium and 
silver shows a hardness equal to that of bronze. 

Tiers-argent {one-third silver). — This alloy is chiefly 
prepared in Paris factories for the manufacture of various 
utensils, and as indicated by its name consists of silver 
33.33 parts and aluminium 66.66. The advantages of this 
alloy over silver consist in the lower price and greater 
hardness ; it is also stamped and engraved with greater 
ease than the alloys of copper and silver. 

Alloys of silver and zinc. — Silver and zinc have great 
affinity for each other, and consequently are readily alloyed. 
The alloys are prepared by throwing the required quantity 
of zinc previously wrapped in paper into the melted and 
strongly-heated silver, stirring thoroughly with an iron 
rod, and pouring the fused mass at once into moulds. 
Alloys of silver and zinc can be obtained both ductile and 
flexible. An alloy consisting of zinc 2 parts and silver 1 
has nearly the color of pure silver and is quite ductile. 
With a larger proportion of zinc it becomes, however, 
brittle. In preparing the alloy a small quantity of zinc 
volatilizes, and hence somewhat more has to be taken than 
the finished product is to contain. 

By pouring melted zinc into melted silver, G. H. Godfrey* 
prepared the following alloys: 

I. 

Silver 8.16 

Zinc 91.84 

*Percy. Gold and Silver. Vol. I, p. 169. 



II. 


III. 


IV. 


22.47 


49.72 


67.58 


77-53 


50.28 


32.42 



406 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The surface of I. was bluish-gray. The alloy was hard, 
easily frangible, and readily scratched with a knife. Its 
fracture was bluish-gray, finely granular and feebly lustrous. 

The surface of II. was bluish-gray, The alloy was harder 
than I., readily frangible, but less easily scratched. Its 
fracture was bluish-gray, bright and fibro-columnar. 

The surface of III. was copper-red after solidification. 
The alloy was hard, brittle and easily pulverized. The 
broken surface, when fractured cold, was white and very 
bright and somewhat columnar. 

The surface of IV. had a faint reddish-yellow tint. The 
alloy was hard and easily frangible; its fracture white and 
very bright, but it soon tarnished ; its fracture was columnar. 

Alloys of silver and zinc possess valuable properties, 
especially that of retaining their white color and being more 
fusible than silver-copper alloys. It has, therefore, been 
proposed to use them for coinage, and especially for small 
coins. Alloys with 5, 10, and 20 per cent, of zinc pre- 
pared with this object in view were white, with a tinge of 
yellow and the coins made of them more elastic and sonor- 
ous, and not as easily blackened by sulphuretted hydro- 
gen as silver-copper alloys. Comparative experiments have, 
however, shown that for coins it would be preferable to use 
alloys, which, in addition to silver and zinc, contain copper, 
the following composition having been especially recom- 
mended for the purpose : Silver 835 parts, copper 93, zinc 72. 

The alloy can be readily rolled into a sheet of suitable 
thickness, and should it become brittle its ductility may be 
restored by annealing. 

Alloys of silver, copper, and nickel. — Nickel by itself 
makes silver very hard and brittle, such alloys being diffi- 
cult to work into utensils. But by adding some copper 
the alloys can be cast, rolled, and fused, and the articles 
manufactured from them are harder than those from silver 
and copper alloys. Alloys of silver, nickel, and copper are 
much used by French manufacturers for articles formerly 



SILVER ALLOYS. 



407 



prepared from standard silver. These compositions may 
be considered as an argentan whose properties have been 
improved by a content of silver. 

Argent-Ruolz. — The articles manufactured by Ruolz, of 
Paris, from the so-called Ruolz silver, or argent franqais, 
have the appearance of pure silver, but are much cheaper 
and harder. According to the quality of the articles, dif- 
ferent alloys are used, a few such compositions being given 
as follows : 

Parts. 



I. 

Silver 33 

Copper 37 to 42 

Nickel 25 to 30 



II. III. 

40 20 

30 to 40 45 to 55 

20 to 30 25 to 35 



C. D. Abel, of London, has patented in England several 
alloys containing silver and nickel. They are divided into 
two classes, the first consisting of alloys of silver, copper, 
and nickel, with or without an addition of manganese. The 
alloys of this class may be composed according to the fol- 
lowing proportions :■■ — 





Per cent. 




A. 


B. 


C. 


Silver .' 


33 

25 to 30 

37 to 42 


40 

20 to 30 

30 to 40 


20 


Nickel 

Copper 


25 to 35 

45 to 55 



The second group of these alloys consists of silver, cop- 
per, nickel and zinc, with or without manganese, and is 
composed of the following proportions : — 



408 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Silver . 
Copper 
Zinc . . 
Nickel 





Parts. 




D. 

333 

418 

163 

86 


E. 


F. 


340 

420 

16 ; 

80 


400 

446 

108 

46 



Of the above-mentioned alloys A, D, and E are especially 
intended for rolled, pressed, or drawn silver articles, C for 
casting, and F for jewelry. The content of silver in these 
alloys varies from 20 to 40 per cent., according to the pur- 
poses for which they are to be used — the proportion of 
nickel being the less, the greater that of silver. 

For the alloys of the first group the patentee uses the 
purest copper found in commerce and purified nickel, the 
purification of the latter being effected in the following 
manner : The ordinary impure nickel of commerce is dis- 
solved in nitric acid or in dilute sulphuric acid, the solution 
in the latter case being promoted by connecting the nickel 
with the positive pole of a galvanic battery. The solution 
is treated with chlorine, and the ferric oxide precipitated by 
boiling with calcium carbonate. The solution is subse- 
quently precipitated with soda, the precipitate re-dissolved 
in hydrochloric acid, the solution diluted with a large 
quantity of water, saturated with chlorine, and then treated 
with barium carbonate, and allowed to cool. From the 
fluid separated from the precipitate the nickel is sub- 
sequently precipitated by the galvanic method and then 
reduced. 

Nickel-speiss can be treated by the dry method by melt- 
ing 100 parts of it with 20 of saltpeter and 100 of feldspar, 
whereby the cobalt forms a blue glass. The residue is 
roasted, washed, and dissolved in sulphuric acid, the result- 
ing fluid being treated in the same manner as above. But 



SILVER ALLOYS. 409 

no matter how the nickel may have been purified, it is of 
advantage before preparing the alloys to remelt it in a 
crucible together with yellow or red prussiate of potash, 50 
parts of yellow or 25 to 30 of red prussiate of potash being 
used for the purification of the commercial nickel. Fre- 
quently this method alone suffices for the purification of the 
commercial nickel, which by these means is obtained in 
well- fluxed, homogeneous pieces of any desired size. 

The nickel purified in the above or any other manner is 
melted with the copper and an addition of charcoal and 
yellow, or better, red prussiate of potash, which when used 
as flux, is claimed to impart special properties to the alloys. 
In preparing an alloy which is to contain the highest con- 
tent of silver and the smallest of copper, it is of advantage 
to add some manganese to prevent oxidation as much as 
possible, since the addition of nickel, if exceeded above a 
certain proportion, would impair the quality of the alloy. 
For this purpose sufficient oxide of manganese previously 
glowed with charcoal in a closed crucible is added to the 
mixture of copper and nickel before melting so that a pre- 
liminary alloy, consisting of 80 to 90 parts of copper and 
nickel and 10 to 20 parts of manganese, is obtained — borax, 
red or yellow prussiate of potash, and charcoal being used 
as Auk. The manganese readily combines with the copper, 
and the nickel and silver form with them a ductile alloy 
readily worked. 

For the preparation of the alloys D, E, and F, the patentee 
employs the purest commercial copper and zinc and nickel 
purified by one of the methods above described. He first 
melts the copper and zinc together in the right proportions, 
and adds to the alloy thus obtained, the nickel by remelt- 
ing, using the above-mentioned fluxing agents. For an 
alloy with a large percentage of silver, manganese is added 
in the same manner as above described. 

The preliminary alloys thus obtained are subsequently 
melted together with the necessary quantity of silver, either 



410 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

yellow or red prussiate of potash, charcoal or borax, to- 
gether with phosphorus being added. For the production 
of an alloy of phosphorus and copper the use of phosphor- 
copper deserves the preference. ■ Its content of phosphorus 
having been previously determined by an analysis, it is added 
to the argentiferous alloy in such a quantity that the content 
of phosphorus of the latter amounts to ^ to 2 per cent. 
The phosphor-copper is best prepared by heating 8 parts of 
comminuted copper with 1 part of a mixture of 40 parts of 
charcoal and 27 of superphosphate of lime. The final silver 
alloys can also be at once fused with this mixture of char- 
coal and superphosphate of lime previously heated to a 
slight red heat, using 1000 parts of the alloy to 100 of the 
mixture. By this process the content of phosphorus in the 
alloys will be the greater the longer the heating has been 
continued. The introduction of phosphorus makes the 
alloys more fusible and more homogeneous, and at the 
same time imparts to them a white color. To retain these 
advantages and to restore to the alloy its ductility lost by 
the addition of phosphorus, the latter is almost entirely re- 
moved, after homogeneous ingots have been obtained, by 
heating the alloy with charcoal powder in a closed crucible 
for several hours. 

Alloys of silver, copper, nickel, and zinc. — These alloys 
have been used for the preparation of small coins, especially 
in Switzerland. The coins while wearing well, however, 
soon lose their original beautiful white color and acquire a 
disagreeable yellowish shade resembling the color of poor 
brass. For coinage these alloys have the further disad- 
vantage of the silver contained in them being only regained 
by a very tedious process. 



SILVER ALLOYS. 

Alloys for Swiss fractional coins. 



411 



, 


20 centimes. 


10 centimes. 


5 centimes. 




Parts. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


Silver 

Copper 


15 
50 
25 
10 


10 

55 
25 
10 


5 
60 


Nickel 

Zinc 


25 
10 



Mousset's silver alloy. — Copper 59.06 parts, silver 27.56, 
zinc 9.57, nickel 3.42. Color, yellowish with a reddish 
tinge, but white upon the fractured surface. 

The argent-Ruolz sometimes contains also certain quan- 
tities of zinc. The following alloys can be rolled into sheet 
or drawn out into wire : — 



Parts. 



II. 


III. 


34 


40 


42 


44.6 


8 


4.6 


18 


10.8 



I. 

Silver 33.3 

Copper 41 .8 

Nickel 8.6 

Zinc 16.3 



Alloys of silver and arsenic. — These alloys may be formed 
by direct fusion, and the silver will retain a certain pro- 
portion of arsenic even when the temperature is very high. 
The compound made of 86 parts of silver to 14 of arsenic is 
of a dead grayish-white color, brittle, and acquires a metallic 
luster by friction. It is very fusible. An alloy composed of 
silver 49 parts, copper 49 and arsenic 2, is very ductile and 
has a beautiful white color. It was formerly used for the 
manufacture of table-ware, for which it is, however, not 
suitable on account of the poisonous properties of the 
arsenic. 

Alloys of silver, copper and cadmium. — Cadmium imparts 
to silver alloys great flexibility and ductility, without im- 



412 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



pairing their white color. Some of the more important 
alloys of this group are composed of — 



Silver . . . 
Copper . . 
Cadmium 



Parts. 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


gSo 


950 


900 


860 


666 


667 


500 


15 


15 


18 


20 


25 


50 


50 


5 


35 


82 


180 


309 


283 


450 



In preparing these alloys the great volatility of cadmium 
must be taken into consideration. The silver and copper 
are, as a rule, first alloyed ; the cadmium wrapped in paper 
is then brought into the fused mass, the whole quickly 
stirred and at once poured into moulds. By this mode of 
procedure volatilization of cadmium is best prevented. 

Silver is also used in the preparation of other alloys, par- 
ticularly in connection with platinum, which will be referred 
to later on. No true alloys of silver and iron have been 
made, only more or less intimate mixtures, in which silver 
appears in the shape of drops or filaments. The alloys of 
silver with cobalt and chromium are generally very hard 
and brittle, and thus far have found no application in the 
industries. 

Alloys of silver and copper. — These alloys are more used 
than any other compounds of silver, and in most countries 
form the legal composition of coins and silverware. Silver 
and copper are easily alloyed in all proportions, the com- 
bination taking place with expansion, and its specific gravity 
is less than that calculated from the proportions of the 
component metals. The copper imparts to silver greater 
hardness, strength, and toughness, the alloys acquiring the 
property of giving out a beautiful sound. The presence of 
copper does not modify the color of silver so long as the 
proportion of copper does not exceed 40 to 50 per cent. ; a 



SILVER ALLOYS. 



413 



greater proportion imparts to the alloy a yellowish tint 
similar to that of brass, and if the compound contains from 
65 to 70 per cent, of copper the color is reddish, approach- 
ing that of pure copper. 

The alloys of copper and silver, though easily prepared by 
the ordinary process of fusion, are, nevertheless, subject to 
the defect of separation, or " liquation," which necessitates 
certain precautions when running the metal into moulds. 
When such an alloy is run into a cold ingot mould, the 
center of the ingot shows a lower degree of fineness than 
the portion nearer the sides of the mould; and even in the 
monetary alloys all the portions are not of the same degree 
of fineness. 

Formerly the silver used for coinage frequently contained 
small quantities of gold, and for this reason nearly all the 
older coins are treated in the mints by the wet method to 
regain the gold. 

At the present time the fineness of all coins is deter- 
mined by thousandths, the standard varying according to 
the size of the coins, and the laws of the different coun- 
tries, from -Atto to iW.r. In the following table the com- 
positon of the silver coins of various countries is given: — 



414 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Country. 



Austria 

Belgium 

Brazil 

Denmark 

East Indies. . . 
Egypt 

France 

Germany 

Great Britain. 

Greece 

Holland 

Italy 

Mexico 

Norway 

Portugal 

Prussia 

Russia 

Spain , 

Sweden 

Switzerland . 

Turkey 

United States 



Coins. 



Pieces of 3 and 2 guldens 

5-franc piece '. 

2-franc piece 

Milreis, pieces of 500 and 200 reis 

Dobbelt rigsdaler, rigsdaler, halvdaler 

Mark ( % rigsdaler) 

Pieces of 1, J4> }£, Y% rupee 

Pieces of 20, 10 and 5 piastres 

Pieces of 1 piastre 

Pieces of Y and % piastre 

Pieces of 5, 2 and 1 franc, and 50 and 20 cen- 
times 

Mark piece 

Crown, half-crown and shilling 

Pieces of 5, 1, l /z and Y drachme 

Pieces of 2Y2, 1 and y 2 gulden 

Pieces of 5, 2, 1, Y and %. lira 

Peso (average by U. S. Mint assay) 

Peso of Maximilian (average by U. S. Mint 
assay) 

Pieces of 1, Vz, \, rs specie daler 

Pieces of 500 reis (by U. S. Mint assay) 

Thaler pieces 

Old Thalers before 1857 

Pieces of 1 , Y an d X ruble 

Pieces of 1, T ^, ^V ruble 

Dollar of 5 pesetas 

Peseta (present, by U. S. Mint assay) 

Riksdaler, crown and Y riksdaler 

Pieces of 2, 1 and Y francs 1 

Pieces of 20, 10, 5 and 2 piastres 

Dollar, half dollar, quarter dollar, dime, half 
dime and three-cent piece 



Fineness. 



900 
897 • 

835 
916 

875 

500 

Q16.66 

833^ 

755 

750 

835 
900 

925 
900 

945 
835 
901 

902^ 

875 

912 

900 

750 

768.5 

750 

900 

835 

750 

800 

830 

900 



The various silver-copper alloys employed in England 
for manufacturing purposes are given by Gee * as shown in 
the following tables : — 





I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


Silver 

Copper 


oz. dwt. gr. 
18 
020 


oz. dwt. 
16 
4 


gr. 




oz. dwt. gr. 
15 
050 


oz. dwt. gr. 
14 
060 



*Gee. Silversmith's Handbook. 



SILVER ALLOYS. 



415 





V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


Silver 

Copper 


oz. dwt. gr. 
13 12 
6 12 


oz. dwt. gr. 
13 
070 


oz. dwt. gr. 
12 12 
7 12 


oz. dwt. gr. 
12 
080 



Alloy No. VIII. is about the commonest alloy possible 
to make without the color showing a perceptible yellow 
cast. 

The fineness of silver used in the manufacture of silver- 
ware in different countries varies from r^i to tWVi as 
shown by the following table: — 

Countries. Fineness. 

Prussia, Saxony, Brunswick 780 

Austria, Bavaria 812 

England 925 

France, Italy, Belgium j ^ 5 ° 

Silver alloyed with copper in the preceding proportions 
has, in form of wire or sheet, a hardness equal to that of 
cold-forged copper. By continued mechanical manipulation 
the hardness increases, however, and may be made equal 
to that of wrought-iron. Silver is also sometimes used for 
casting small articles of art, but it is difficult to obtain 
castings entirely free from blow-holes. This evil can, how- 
ever, be readily prevented by adding to the alloy a small 
quantity of zinc, about 1 per cent. The resulting castings 
will be homogeneous, and free from blow-holes, while the 
ductility of the alloy is not in the least impaired by such a 
small percentage of zinc. 

In consequence of the frequent annealing required in 
working articles of silver, they gradually acquire a steel- 
gray color, which is due to the oxidation of copper. Hence 
the finished articles must be subject to a special manipula- 
tion called "blanching." This is effected by boiling the 
articles in a fluid consisting of 40 parts of water and one 



4l6 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

part of sulphuric acid. The oxide of copper readily dis- 
solves in the mixture, leaving the surface of the article 
coated with a layer of chemically pure silver. 

The Japanese have a remarkable series of alloys, in which 
the precious metals replace the tin and zinc of ordinary 
bronze, but really their main alloys with the exception of 
bronze are comprised in the following example given by 
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen in a paper read before the 
Society of Arts, June 13, 1890. The first is called 

Shakii-do. — It contains : 

I. II. 

Copper 94.50 9577 

Silver 1 .55 0.08 

Gold 3-73 4-i6 

Lead 0.11 — 

Iron and arsenic traces — 

99.89 100.01 

As will be seen from the analyses, the alloy contains in 
addition to about 95 per cent, of copper as much as 4 per 
cent, of gold. It has been used for very large works. 
Colossal statues are made of it, one cast at Nara in the 
seventh century being especially remarkable. The quantity 
of gold is, however, very variable, and certain specimens 
contain only 1.5 per cent, of the precious metal. 

The next important alloy used by the Japanese is called 
Shibu-ichi, the following being typical analyses of it : 

Copper 67.31 51-10 

Silver 32.07 48-93 

Gold traces 0.12 

Iron 0.52 — 



99.90 100.15 



There are many varieties of it, but in both these alloys — 
skaku-do and shibu-ichi — the point of interest is, that the 
precious metals are, as it were, sacrificed in order to pro- 
duce definite results, gold and silver, when used pure, be- 



SILVER ALLOYS. 417 

ing employed very sparingly to heighten the general effect. 
In the case of shaku-do, it will be seen presently that the 
gold appears to enable the metal to receive a beautiful rich 
purple coat or patina when treated with certain pickling 
solutions, while shibu-ichi possesses a peculiar silver-gray 
tint of its own, which, under ordinary atmospheric influ- 
ences, becomes very beautiful, and to which the Japanese 
artists are very partial. These are the principal alloys, but 
there are several varieties of them as well as combinations 
of shaku-do and shibu-ichi in various proportions, as, for 
instance, in the case of kin-shibu-ichi, the composition of 
which would correspond to one part of skaku-do rich in 
gold, and two parts of shibu-ichi, rich in silver. 

With regard to the use of pickling solution, they are 
made up respectively in the following proportions, and are 
used boiling : — 

Verdigris 438 grains 87 grains 220 grains 

Sulphate of copper • • 292 grains 427 grains 540 grains 

Nitre — 87 grains — 

Common salt — 146 grains — 

Sulphur — 22,2, grains — 

Water 1 gallon — 1 gallon 

Vinegar — 1 gallon 5 fluid drachms 

The most widely employed is No. I. When boiled in No. 
III. solution, pure copper will turn a brownish-red, and 
shaku-do, which contains a little gold, becomes purple. The 
effect of small quantities of metallic impurity as affecting the 
color resulting from the action of the pickle will be appre- 
ciated from the following remarks : Copper containing a small 
quantity of antimony gives a shade very different from that 
resulting from the pickling of pure copper. But the copper 
produced in Japan is often the result of smelting complex 
ores, and the methods of purification are not so perfectly 
understood as in the West. The result is that the so-called 
"antimony" of the Japanese art metal-workers, which is 
present in the variety of copper called " kuromi," is really a 
27 



418 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

complex mixture containing tin, cobalt, and many other 
metals, so that a metal-worker has an infinite series of 
materials at command with which to secure any particular 
shade; and these are used with much judgment, although 
the scientific reason for the adoption of any particular sam- 
ple may be hidden from him. It is strictly accurate to say 
that each particular shade of color is the result of minute 
quantities of metallic impurity. 

The action of the above-mentioned solutions is remark- 
able. Take copper to which a small amount of silver and a 
small amount of gold are added. The amount of gold may 
be variable, and artificers often take credit for putting in 
much more than analysis proves to be present, but a small 
amount of gold, it may be only i per cent., is sufficient to 
entirely change the character of copper, and when it is 
treated by pickling solutions the result is entirely different 
from that if copper alone is employed. The Japanese also 
take copper and dilute it, sometimes half copper and half 
silver, sometimes only about one-third silver and all the 
rest copper, and that gives the lovely series of gray alloys, 
which, either by exposure to atmospheric influences, by 
handling or by treatment with suitable pickles, gives the 
beautiful series of light and dark grays of which the Japanese 
are so particularly fond, and to grays to which the name 
shibn ichi is given. Then again they have copper in which 
small amounts of impurities may be present, and the nature 
of such impurity and the amount, which seldom exceeds 
two-tenths per cent., is quite sufficient to change the char- 
acter of the copper. The Japanese working in no small 
measure by rule of thumb, find that certain varieties of 
copper are best suited for definite processes, and store them 
up and use them in definite ways. 

Other Japanese alloys of special interest are those to 
which the names moku-me (wood-grain) and niyu-nagashi 
(marbled) are given. The characteristic alloys which the 
Japanese employ are taken in thin sheets and soldered to- 



SILVER ALLOYS. 4 2i 

Clark's patent alloy consists of shot-copper i ounce, 
nickel 3 dwts. 18 grains, spelter 1 dwt. 22 grains, tin 12 
grains, cobalt 12 grains. 

Pirsch-Baudoiris alloy. — This alloy, resembling silver, is 
composed of copper 71 parts, nickel 16.5, cobalt (in the 
form of oxide) 1.75, tin 2.5, and zinc 7. Some aluminium 
(about % per cent.) may also be added. Prepare first an 
alloy of all the nickel, an equal quantity of the copper and 
the zinc ; then melt this alloy together with the iron, the 
remainder of the- copper, the cobalt, and some charcoal 
powder under a surface covering of charcoal powder in a 
graphite crucible at a strong heat. Allow the melted mass 
to cool and then add the zinc, previously alloyed with cop- 
per, at a temperature just sufficient for its fusion. Now 
take the crucible from the fire, stir/ the contents with a 
wooden stick, add the tin previously wrapped in paper, 
stir the mass once more, and pour out into moulds. But 
a small quantity of zinc remains in the alloy, the greater 
portion of it volatilizing during fusion. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
GOLD ALLOYS. 

Gold has been known and used by every nation, both 
uncivilized and civilized, from the earliest period down to 
our time. It is found among the old Egyptian monuments, 
and semi-barbarous nations have used it in the form of dust 
as the principal medium of exchange, the instrument of as- 
sociation. When America was discovered by Columbus 
gold was well known to its inhabitants ; the Chinese have 
used it from time immemorial ; the Medes and Persians 
were remarkable, even more than other Asiatics, for their 
love of gold ; jewels of costly description were employed 
to indicate the rank of the wearer, and this custom is still 
continued in the East at the present time. To show the 
sacred value the Egyptians in ancient times placed on gold, 
it was represented by a circle with a dot in the middle, this 
circle amongst that nation being the symbol of divinity and 
perfection. 

Gold is one of the metals which most readily enter into 
combination with other metals. But this property is with- 
out importance when we consider the inutility of the ma- 
jority of the compounds, and the necessity of not debasing 
its value or impairing its properties. Moreover, it is certain 
that excepting its alloys with copper, silver, iron, and plati- 
num, the latter two being without actual utility, gold loses 
part of its ductility, resistance, and cohesion, when it is 
combined with other metals such as zinc, tin, lead, etc. 
Therefore, it is entirely useless to experiment on those 
alloys where gold loses not only a part of its money value, 
but also those valuable properties which participated in 
making it a noble metal. 

(422) 



GOLD ALLOYS. 423 

The principal alloys of gold used at the present time are 
those with copper or silver, or, in rare cases, with both 
these metals. 

Gold .and copper have great mutual affinity and may be 
alloyed in all proportions. The alloys are harder and more 
fusible than gold alone. Copper diminishes the ductility of 
gold when it enters into the combination in a proportion 
over 10 to 12 per cent. The specific gravity of an alloy of 
gold and copper is less than the average of the two metals. 
The color of the alloy varies between dark yellow and red, 
according to the quantity of copper. Pure copper must be 
used in the preparation of the alloys, as the impure metal 
alters the malleability of gold and may render it brittle. 

Gold and silver may be easily mixed together, but do not 
appear to form true combinations. These compounds are 
more fusible than gold and are generally greenish-white, 
more ductile, harder, more sonorous and elastic than gold 
or silver considered singly. One-twentieth of silver is suffi- 
cient to modify the color of gold. Silver, like copper, 
increases the firmness of gold, and on that account it is 
employed at various degrees of fineness for jewelry work. 
These alloys are known by jewelers under the names of 
yellow gold, green gold, and pale gold, according to the 
proportion of silver. 

As previously mentioned, the alloys of gold with other 
metals are of no practical utility and need only be briefly 
referred to. Gold alloyed with iron forms pale gray masses, 
brittle, and somewhat magnetic. An alloy holding \ of iron 
is employed in jewelry under the name of gray gold. 

Lead shows a peculiar behavior towards gold. Both 
metals are very soft and ductile, but when alloyed they 
form an exceedingly brittle metal of a pale yellow color, 
strongly crystalline, and hard as glass. According to Ber- 
thier, one-half of one-thousandth of lead alloyed to gold is 
sufficient to render the latter metal entirely brittle and 
without ductility. 



424 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Arsenic or antimony alloyed with gold gives a brittle, 
very crystalline alloy of a white or gray color. Accidental 
admixtures of arsenic or antimony can, however, be re- 
moved in a simple manner, it being only necessary, to keep 
the metal in a melted state for some time, whereby the 
arsenic and antimony volatilize, the pure gold remaining 
behind. 

Alloys of gold and palladium. — By alloying palladium i 
part with gold i part a gray alloy is formed. It has the 
color of wrought-iron, is less ductile than either of the com- 
ponent metals, and of a coarse-grained fracture. A hard, 
ductile alloy is formed with i part palladium and 4 parts 
gold, and an almost white alloy with 1 part palladium and 
6 parts gold. Alloys of gold, copper, silver and palladium 
have a brownish-red color and are as hard as iron. They 
are sometimes used for bearings of the arbors in fine 
watches as they cause the minimum of friction (less than 
the jewels used for the same purpose) and do not rust. A 
typical alloy for watches consists of gold 18 parts, copper 
13, silver 11, palladium 6. For parts of watches which re- 
quire to be very hard an alloy of So parts gold and 20 parts 
palladium is also used. 

Alloy of aluminium and gold. — This alloy, also known 
as N2ire7nberg gold, is frequently used in the manufacture 
of cheap gold ware, it being well adapted for the purpose 
as its color exactly resembles that of pure gold and remains 
unchanged in the air. The composition of most articles of 
Nuremberg gold is according to the following proportions : 
Copper 90 parts, gold 2.5, aluminium 7.5. 

An addition of cadmium to an alloy of gold and silver 
imparts to it a beautiful green color. These alloys will be 
referred to in speaking of colored gold. 

Preparation of Gold Alloys. 
The preparation of the alloys varies according to the pur- 
pose for which they are to be used, this difference being es- 



GOLD ALLOYS. 425 

pecially apparent in the moulds employed for casting. The 
manufacturers of gold articles rarely use moulds for shap- 
ing the articles, excepting such as have considerable thick- 
ness, as seal-rings, medals with especially high relief, etc. 
The casting of such articles is generally effected in moulds 
of very fine sand, or finely pulverized and elutriated cuttle- 
fish. 

For coinage the gold is always cast into ingots or bars, 
iron moulds being generally used for the purpose. The 
bars are either rolled out to sheet or drawn into wire, the 
larger part of jewelry being also manufactured from such 
sheet or wire. The shape of the moulds used for casting 
varies according to the shape the ingot is to have ; for in- 
gots to be drawn out into wire it is best to use cylindrical 
tubes open on top and closed on the lower end by an iron 
plug. The gold contracting strongly in solidifying can be 
removed from the tubes without difficulty. 

Ingots to be used for the preparation of gold plates are 
best cast in the form of four-sided prisms, casting ladles 
with a corresponding bowl being used for the purpose. 
For casting very thin plates upright ladles covered with a 
level plate are also used. 

The melting of the metals constituting the alloys is 
always effected in graphite crucibles, the gold being in all 
cases first melted, and as it does not oxidize even at a red 
heat a protecting cover is not required. The gold being 
entirely melted, it is heated as strongly as the furnace will 
permit, and the other metals previously converted into 
small pieces are then introduced. On account of the great 
density of gold as compared with that of the other metals, 
the mixture of the metals is promoted by stirring with an 
iron rod sharpened on the point and made previously red 
hot. The crucible is then quickly withdrawn and its contents 
poured into a suitable ingot mould, previously warmed and 
greased to prevent adhesion. The warming of the mould 
is quite indispensable, but if made too hot the metal on 



426 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



being turned into it will spit and fly about, and besides in- 
curring great loss of gold, dangerous results might thereby 
happen to the person in charge. The same remark applies 
when the ingot mould is cold. It is hot enough when the 
hand will just stand touching it for a second or so. 

The melting point of gold being very high, the furnace 
used should have a good draught. In some mints which 

Fig 40. 




alloy daily large quantities of gold and silver, furnaces 
heated by gas are used. 

The furnace used by most manufacturers of gold-ware is, 
however, the wind-furnace, one admirably suited for the 
purpose being shown in Fig. 40. The crucible and fuel are 
introduced through an oblique iron door lined inside with 
fire-clay. These furnaces can also be used for the prepara- 



GOLD ALLOYS. 42/ 

tion of granulated gold, frequently used by gold-workers in 
the manufacture of jewelry. For. this purpose thin sheet- 
gold or wire is cut with scissors into small pieces, which 
are enveloped in charcoal dust in a graphite crucible, and 
heated in the furnace. The pieces of gold melt to small 
balls of corresponding dimensions, which, after being freed 
from adhering foreign bodies by washing, are separated 
into sizes by passing through a sieve. 

When it is desired to produce very tough gold, use as 
flux a tablespoonful of charcoal and one of sal ammoniac, 
adding it to the gold just before melting ; the sal ammoniac 
burns away while toughening the gold. The employment 
of this mixture of sal ammoniac will bring the ingots of 
gold up bright and clear ; it will also prevent them from 
splitting or cracking when rolled and in subsequent working. 

In remelting scrap-gold from the work-shop and old 
gold, care should be taken that they are not too much 
contaminated by solder and are free from organic matter, 
wax, etc. The solder used in soldering gold-ware contains 
tin, lead, bismuth, and sometimes zinc, and the presence of 
these metals has an injurious effect upon the ductility of the 
gold. It is recommended to separate much-contaminated 
gold from the foreign metals by the wet process, and alloy 
the resulting chemically pure gold. 

In most countries there are legally fixed standards for 
gold alloys. Generally such alloys are considered as con- 
sisting of so many carats to the unit, the pound, or half 
pound being divided into 24 carats, each of which contains 
12 grains. What is termed 18 carat gold is a unit of 24 carats 
of alloy containing 18 carats gold and 6 of copper. Since 
the introduction of the decimal system in many countries 
the fineness of gold alloys has been determined by thou- 
sandths, the fineness of the' alloys being officially expressed 
in this manner. Notwithstanding the simplicity of the 
system, many manufacturers still hold to the old method 
and calculate according to carats and grains. To save 



428 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



calculation the conversion of carats and grains into thou- 
sandths is given in the following table : 



1 gram = 

2 " 

3 " 

4 " 

5 " 

6 " 

7 " 

8 " 

9 

io " 

ii " 

12 " 

i carat = 

2 " 

3 " 

4 " 

5 " 

6 " 



3-47 


7 can 


6-95 


8 " 


10.42 


9 " 


13.89 


10 " 


I7-36 


11 " 


20.84 


12 " 


24.31 


13 " 


27.78 


14 " 


31-25 


15 " 


34-73 


16 " 


38.19 


17 " 


41.67 


18 « 


41.667 


19 ' 


83-334 


20 ' 


125.001 


21 ' 


166.667 


22 " 


208.333 


23 " 


250.000 


24 ' 



7 carats= 291 .666 

333-333 

• 374-999 

416.667 

458.630 

500.000 

54I-667 

583-333 

624.S55 

666.667 

707-333 

750.000 

791.666 

833.333 

874.999 

916.666 

958.333 

1000.000 



Use of Gold Alloys. 

Gold alloys are principally used for coinage and orna- 
mental articles. They are further employed in the manu- 
facture of genuine gold-leaf, in the preparation of genuine 
Leonis wires (which consist of silver coated with gold), 
and in filling teeth. 

Standard gold. — The alloy used at present in all coun- 
tries for gold coins consists of gold and copper. Many 
coins contain a small quantity of silver, but this is due to a 
contamination of the copper with this metal, many copper 
ores containing silver, but in such small quantities that the 
separation of the two metals would not pay. As coins are 
subjected to considerable wear through frequently passing 
from hand to hand, the amount of loss occasioned thereby 
is worthy of some little consideration. Of course, this 
amount will be in proportion to the length of time the 
coins have been in circulation. To provide against this the 
English government allows a sovereign to be a legal tender 



GOLD ALLOYS. 429 

till it is reduced not below 122.5 grains, the difference be- 
tween this and the full standard weight of 123.147 grains 
being the, remedy allowed by English law for abrasion or 
loss by wear. The depreciation of a coin depends upon 
its hardness, wearing much more when soft, and also upon 
the rapidity of circulation. In most countries the fineness 
of gold coins is fixed by law, and though, as will be seen 
from the following table, the differences are slight, com- 
merce would be greatly facilitated if all countries would 
adopt a universal standard of fineness : 

Ducats, Hungarian 989 thousandths. 

Austrian 986 ' ' 

" Dutch 982 " 

English sovereigns .• , 916 ' ' 

Prussian Friedrichsd'or 902 ' ' 



1 



900 thousandths. 



German gold coins 

Austrian crowns 

French gold coins 

Belgian 

Italian 

Swiss 

Spanish 

Greek 

United States 

Chinese J 

Older German gold coins (pistoles) 895 " 

In the manufacture of jewelry alloys of gold with copper, 
or with silver, or with both metals are used. The alloy 
with copper alone is termed red, while if silver is used it is 
termed white, and if both metals are alloyed with gold the 
caratation is termed mixed. In most countries there are 
legally fixed standards for gold jewelry. In England 16, 
18, and 22 carat gold is stamped, or, as it is termed Hall 
marked, in France 18, 20, and 22 carat, in Germany 8, 14, 
and 18 carat, and, also, under the term jonjou gold, a 6 
carat gold used for jewelry to be electro-gilt. Though this 
is intended as a protection to the buyer, the price of the 
articles does not depend alone on the quantity of gold used, 



430 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



but to a great extent on the labor expended on its pro- 
duction, and, therefore, these legal regulations are, in many 
cases, illusive. 

In the following table the gold alloys legally fixed by the 
various governments are given, but it may be remarked 
that for certain ornamental articles distinguished by their 
color some deviation, though within certain limits, is per- 
mitted : 



Fineness. 


Parts. 


Color. 










Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 




583 


14 


6 


4 


yellow. 


583 


14 


3 


7 


dark yellow. 


583 


14 


1 


9 


very red. 


666 


16 


4.66 


3-33 


yellow. 


666 


16 


1.60 


6.40 


red. 


750 


18 


3-50 


2.50 


yellow. 


750 


18 


2.50 


3-50 


red. 



Gold alloys which can be legally used in various countries. 

Fineness. 

England 750 

France ~v highest standard 920 

Belgium \ second 840 

Italy J third " 750 

Austria, No. 1 326 

" No. II 545 

No. Ill 767 

Pforzheim gold-ware. 

Fineness. 

Ordinary ware (joujou) 130 to 250 

Finer quality 563 

Finest quality 583 to 750 

Gold. Silver. Copper. 
Parts. Parts. Parts. 
Elastic gold alloy (spring gold) 2.66 2.66 5.33 

The following table shows the proportions of various 
metals incorporated in the gold alloys used by jewelers ; 



GOLD ALLOYS. 



431 



Carats. 


Parts. 


Copper. 


Silver. 


Gold. 


23 

22 : 


Y 

I 

2 

3 
6 
8 

sy 

10 

10)4 

ioy 2 

9 


Y 

1 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3^ 

4 

4K 

sY 

8 


23 
22 


20 


20 


18 


18 


15 

13 

12 

10 


15 
13 
12 
10 


9 

8 


9 
8 


7 


7 



Colored gold. — As previously remarked, the color of gold 
alloys varies according to the proportions of copper or sil- 
ver used. Manufacturers of jewelry and other gold-ware 
make extensive use of the various colors of alloys, one arti- 
cle being frequently composed of several pieces of different 
colors. The appended table gives the composition of the 
alloys most frequently used, with their specific colors : — 



Parts. 














Color. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Steel. 


Cadmium. 




2 to 6 


1.0 







_ 


green. 


75-o 


16.6 


— 


— 


8.4 


" 


74.6 


11.4 


9-7 


— 


4-3 


" 


75-0 


12.5 


— 


— 


12.5 


" 


1,0 


2.0 


— 


— 


— 


pale yellow. 


4.0 


3-0 


1.0 


— 


— 


dark yellow. 


14.7 


7.0 


6.0 


— 


— 


' ' 


14.7 


9.0 


4.0 


— 


— 


" 


3-0 


1.0 


1.0 


— 


— 


pale red. 


10. 


1.0 


4.0 


— 


— 


1 ' 


1.0 


— 


1.0 


— 


— 


dark red. 


1.0 


— 


2.0 


— 


— 


' ' 


30.0 


3-0 


— 


2.0 


— 


gray. 


4.0 


— 


— 


1.0 


— 


' ' 


29.0 


II'.O 


— 


— 


— 


" 


1 to 3 


— 


— 


1 


— 


blue. 



432 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The alloys containing cadmium, given in the above table, 
are malleable and ductile, and can be used for plating. To 
prepare them the constituent parts must be carefully melted 
together in a covered crucible .lined with coal dust. The 
resulting alloy is then remelted with charcoal, or powdered 
rosin and borax in a graphite crucible. If, notwithstanding 
these precautions, a considerable portion of the cadmium 
volatilizes, the alloy must be again remelted with an ex- 
cess of cadmium to bring it up to the required percentage. 

In modern times certain alloys of gold are also prepared 
by the galvanic process, and articles showing various colors 
are now manufactured by this method. It is generally done 
by immersing the article of gold in a diluted bath of chlo- 
ride of gold in which is a plate of silver connected with the 
positive pole of a battery; silver separates upon the gold, a 
certain alloy being formed which is used as a basis for fur- 
ther coloring. When the desired color has made its appear- 
ance, the plate of silver is replaced by one of colored gold, 
whose color corresponds to the shade the article is to have. 

In many factories it is customary to color the finished gold 
articles, i, e., to impart to them, by treatment with agents 
capable of dissolving copper, a color approaching that of 
chemically pure gold. By this operation the alloy of gold 
and copper is decomposed on the surface of the article, the 
copper being dissolved out. By allowing the surface of 
the article to remain in contact with the bath for some time 
the copper is entirely dissolved, a layer of pure gold with 
its characteristic color remaining behind. By allowing the 
bath to act for a shorter time only a portion of the copper 
is dissolved, and, by skilful manipulation, the various shades 
between red and yellow can be imparted to the articles. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 

Platinum alloys readily with most metals, and some of 
these alloys are of technical importance as they offer greater 
resistance to chemical influences than platinum itself. The 
ductility of the latter is, as a rule, decreased by other 
metals, but its hardness is increased, and alloys of a deter- 
mined color may be prepared from cheaper metals. Pure 
platinum, as well as its alloys with iridium and palladium, 
is used in the manufacture of standard weights and scales. 
The platinum vessels used in chemical laboratories, in the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid and other chemical products, 
consist generally of platinum alloyed with one of its allied 
metals. 

The ordinary technically pure commercial platinum con- 
tains about o.i to i per cent, iridium. Chemically pure 
platinum is as soft and ductile as gold ; traces of iridium 
impart to it the hardness and greater resistance against 
chemical influences required for most purposes. 

Platinum melting only at a very high temperature, a 
furnace of peculiar construction heated with oxy-hydrogen 
gas is required for the preparation of the alloys. The melt- 
ing-points of the latter are, however, frequently so low as to 
allow of their being melted in ordinary furnaces. In the 
following we will briefly describe a platinum furnace ex- 
hibited by the French government at the Paris Exhibition 
in 1878, which is used for melting the platinum required in 
the manufacture of standard meters. 

This furnace, or, more correctly, melting apparatus, con- 
sists of an oblong bowl of lime with a cavity capable of 
holding 440 pounds of melted platinum. Upon this bowl 
28 (433) 



434 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

a lid of lime can be lowered by means of a lever mechanism. 
In this lid are so-called Daniell's cocks, used for ordinary 
oxy-hydrogen blow-pipes. The products of combustion 
escape through apertures in the periphery of the bowl. 
The oxy-hydrogen gas used in this apparatus does not con- 
sist of oxygen and hydrogen, but of oxygen and illuminat- 
ing gas. 

For the preparation of platinum alloys on a small scale 
an apparatus resembling the above in its main features may 
be used. A bowl holding several pounds of platinum can 
be fashioned from chalk over a wooden mould, and is, be- 
fore use, converted into caust'ic lime by heating to a white 
heat. An ordinary oxy-hydrogen blowpipe is used, the 
compressed oxygen and hydrogen being contained in strong 
vessels, or in bags of strong canvas made gas-proof by 
several coats of rubber varnish. In preparing alloys of 
platinum with base metals in such a bowl, it must be 
taken into consideration that the latter are at once oxidized 
by the smallest excess of oxygen, and hence care must be 
had to set the cocks of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe so that 
the flame receives a small excess of hydrogen. In pre- 
paring the alloys the quantity of platinum required is first 
brought into flux, and then the other metals are added all 
at once through an aperture in the lid of the bowl which 
otherwise is closed with a lime-plate. 

Immediately after the introduction of the metals into the 
fused platinum, the flame can be modified or in some cases 
entirely extinguished, the alloys having, as a rule, much 
lower melting points than platinum. The melted alloy is 
cast in ingots or cylindrical bars in moulds of lime. The 
ingots are especially adapted for rolling out into sheet, 
while the bars are more suitable for wire. 

Platinum-iridium alloys. — Heraus treated pure platinum 
alloyed with only o.oi per cent, iridium, and with 5 and 10 
per cent iridium for forty days with boiling sulphuric acid 
of 98 per cent. By taking the loss in weight of pure plati- 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 435 

num = 100, the alloys of platinum 95 and iridium 5 were 
= 73 and of platinum 90 and iridium 10 = 58, the decrease 
of the latter being therefore little more than one- half of 
that of pure platinum. Hence platinum-iridium alloys are 
better adapted for sulphuric acid concentration apparatus 
than pure platinum. 

Siebert recommends for laboratory use crucibles of an 
alloy of 70 to 75 parts platinum and 25 to 30 parts iridium. 
The hardness and solubility in aqua-regia increase with the 
content of iridium ; if the latter is not below 20 per cent., 
the alloy is almost completely resistant. The alloys take a 
high polish and with a large content of iridium are some- 
what harder than gold of 916 fineness. 

Examples of alloys which can be readily worked are as 

follows : 

I. II. 

Plarnmn 91.2 92.6 per cent.- 

Iridium 5.4 7.0 " 

Rhodium 3.4 0.4 " 

Alloy No. II. can be readily rolled and is suitable for the 
preparation of patterns. 

Meter-rules manufactured for the French government by 
Johnson & Matthey of London contained 89.41 platinum, 
10.17 iridium, 0.17 rhodium, 0.10 ruthenium, and 0.06 iron. 

A ductile and malleable alloy of specific gravity 21.614, 
consists of platinum 8o.65o, iridium 19.078, rhodium 0.122, 
ruthenium 0.046, and iron 0.098. 

According to Wille the alloy for kilogrammes consists of 
platinum 89.90, iridium 10.09, rhodium a trace, and iron 0.01. 

Platinum-palladium alloys. — With palladium platinum 
forms a gray alloy. An alloy of platinum with 30 per 
cent, rhodium is according to Chapius, not attacked by 
aqua-regia, and after melting can be readily worked. 

According to Heraus an alloy of pure platinum with up 
to 50 per cent, rhodium can be drawn into wire, and an 
alloy of 90 per cent, platinum and 10 per cent, rhodium is 
used in Le Chatelier's thermo-electric pyrometer. 



43^ THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Platinum-gold alloys. — The two metals may be alloyed 
in all proportions, but on account of the refractory nature 
of the platinum the combination takes place only at a very 
high temperature. A very small quantity of platinum suf- 
fices to change the properties of gold to a considerable ex- 
tent. With a very small percentage the color becomes 
sensibly lighter than that of pure gold, and the alloys show 
a high degree of elasticity, which they nearly lose, however, 
if the content of platinum exceeds 20 per cent. The melt- 
ing point of the alloys is very high, and those with 70 per 
cent, platinum can be fused only in the flame of oxy- 
hydrogen gas. Alloys containing less platinum may be 
prepared in a furnace which must, however, be capable of 
producing the strongest white heat possible. The applica- 
tion of platinum-gold alloys is limited ; one containing from 
5 to 10 per cent, platinum is used in the form of sheet and 
wire in the manufacture of artificial sets of teeth. 

According to Percy a platinum-gold alloy resists the 
action of alkalies better than pure platinum. 

When platinum-gold alloys are cast in the form of balls 
in iron moulds, the content of platinum concentrates, on 
cooling of the alloy, towards the center. 

Platinum-gold alloys are used for pyrometric measure- 
ments. By taking the melting-point of gold at 1967 F., 
and that of platinum at 3137 F., then alloys with 

950 gold and 50 platinum melt at 201 2° F. 



900 


' 100 " 


" 2066 F. 


850 


' 150 


" 2117 F. 


800 


200 ' ' 


" 2172 F. 


750 


250 


" 2228 F. 


700 ' 


300 


" 2291 F. 


600 


400 


" 2408 F. 


500 


500 


" 2525°F. 



However, above 2192 F. platinum-gold alloys with more 
than 15 per cent, platinum cannot be recommended, as 
they do not melt uniformly, an alloy richer in gold first 
liquating out. 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 



437 



Platinum-silver alloys. — By an addition of platinum the 
hardness of silver is increased, its ductility decreased, and 
its pure white color changed to gray, an alloy containing 
but a few per cent, of platinum, showing a much darker 
color than pure silver. The alloys obtained by melting the 
metals together in suitable proportions, for instance, i part 
platinum and 2 parts silver, are as fusible as 20 carat gold, 
as ductile and malleable as 18 carat gold, and no more oxi- 
dizable than 14 carat gold. Equal weights of platinum and 
silver yield a hard and brittle alloy with little luster. 

White alloys called Platine au litre, contain 35 parts 
platinum and 65 parts silver; or 17^3 parts platinum and 
82^ parts silver. With an addition of 2 to 3 per cent, 
copper, these alloys are used for soldering platinum articles. 

Such alloys are also used by dentists, for instance, plat- 
mum 2 parts, silver 1 ; or platinum 2 parts, silver 1, and 
palladium 1. 

Platinum-gold-silver alloys. — These alloys are used by 
dentists in the form of fine wires and plates. The silver 
and gold are first melted, the platinum is then added, and 
occasionally palladium. Examples of such alloys are : 



Platinum • 

Gold 

Silver • • . 
Palladium 









Parts. 






I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


4 


2 


9 


6 


14 


10 


2 


1 


1 


2 


2 


4 


6 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


6 


— 


— 


~ 


~ — 


~~ - 


— 




8 





VIII. 



The alloy most suitable for the purpose as regards light- 
ness, elasticity, and color is selected, and pure gold or an 
alloy of gold and silver used as solder. 

Platinor. — The alloy known under this name in commerce 
has a beautiful golden-yellow color (hence its name) without 
containing any gold. It consists of varying quantities of 



438 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



platinum, silver, copper, zinc, and nickel, the variations in 
the percentage of copper and zinc being very likely due to 
the fact that the two metals are not used directly, but in the 
form of brass. The use of the latter has the advantage of 
making the alloy more homogeneous and preventing, to some 
extent, the loss of zinc. An alloy with a color closely resem- 
bling that of pure gold and quite constant in the air may be 
made as follows : Melt i part of silver with 5 of copper, add 
to the melted mass 2 parts of brass, then 1 of nickel, and, 
after raising the temperature to the highest point the fur- 
nace is capable of producing, 2 parts of platinum, which is 
best used in the form of a very fine powder, the so-called 
platinum-black. 

Platinum- bronze. — This alloy deserves attention, it pos- 
sessing properties not to be found to the same extent in 
other alloys, and besides it is not very expensive. Plati- 
num-bronzes are indifferent to the action of air and water, 
and, once polished, retain their bright luster for a long 
time. Up to the present time they have only been used 
for table-ware and articles of luxury, and occasionally, on 
account of their sonorousness, for bells. Besides tin, plati- 
num-bronze always contains platinum and, some composi- 
tions, a certain quantity of silver, which, however, can be 
replaced by a corresponding quantity of brass without im- 
pairing the resistance against atmospheric influences. The 
following table gives the composition of some varieties of 
platinum-bronze : 



Uses. 



For table utensils 

For bells 

For articles of luxury- . . 
For tubes for spy-glasses 
For ornaments 



Parts. 



Nickel. 


Platinum. 


Tin. 


Silver. 


Brass. 


100 


1 


10 






100 


1 


20 


2 


— 


100 


0-5 


15 


— 


— 


100 


20 


20 


— 


— 


60 


10 




— 


120 



ALLOTS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 439 

Alloys of platinum with the base metals. — Among the 
alloys of platinum with the base metals only those with 
copper and iron are of importance. The other metals also 
form alloys with platinum, which, however, are not suitable 
for technical purposes. The alloys with iron are also of 
secondary interest, since platinum-iron and platinum-steel 
have not found the general application in the industries 
which was at one time prophesied by many. It may, 
however, be said that a certain addition of platinum imparts 
to steel many excellent properties, an alloy consisting of i 
part of platinum and 70 of steel being, for instance, on 
account of its great hardness, very suitable for the manu- 
facture of cutting tools. For knives with especially sharp 
edges, an alloy containing only one-half per cent, of plati- 
num is claimed to be the most suitable. 

With pure iron, platinum forms a steel-gray mass very 
difficult to fuse, and so hard as to be scarcely scratched by 
the best file. Berthier tried alloys made of 1 part platinum 
with from 4 to 10 parts of iron. The fracture of the alloy 
was gray and granular, and it was possible to flatten the 
metal with a hammer before breaking it. 

Alloys of platinum and copper. — These alloys, possess- 
ing with great ductility and toughness a very beautiful 
color, can be advantageously used for some technical pur- 
poses. The color of the copper is modified by the presence 
of a comparatively small quantity of platinum, copper con- 
taining but 4 per cent, of it showing a rose color, which, 
in the presence of more platinum, soon changes to golden- 
yellow. 

The alloys of copper with platinum are very ductile, 
malleable, and easily worked. By adding zinc, a mixture 
of metals is obtained which, as regards color and durability 
of luster, is equal to gold, and, for this reason, is used in 
the manufacture of ornaments. The properties of the 
alloys vary very much according to the quantity of metals 
they contain, and, hence, they are adapted for many tech- 
nical purposes. 



44-0 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Golden-yellow alloys of platinum and copper. — Alloys 
so composed that their color approaches that of pure gold 
are suitable for the manufacture of jewelry and other orna- 
ments, and as regards the price of metals can be prepared 
for about twice the cost of silver. With an equally beau- 
tiful color they surpass gold, on account of their much 
lower price, and, especially, their durability. 

The composition of the alloys used in the manufacture 
of ornaments varies within very wide limits. The follow- 
ing are, however, the most important : 

Parts. 

I. II. III. IV. 

Platinum 2 20 7 3 

Copper 5 — 16 13 

Zinc — — 1 — 

Silver 1 20 — — 

Brass 2 240 — — 

Nickel 1 120 — — 

The alloy No. IV., which is known as Cooper's gold, is 
especially adapted for ornamental articles, it having a color 
which cannot be distinguished from that of 18 carat gold, 
even by a close comparison. It can be drawn out to the 
finest wire, and rolled out to very thin sheet. 

Other alloys suitable for ornaments, on account of their 
gold-like appearance, are composed of — 

Parts. 

I. II. III. IV. 

Platinum 15 16 7 6 

Copper 10 7 16 26 

Zinc 1 1 1 — 

The success in preparing these alloys depends, however, 
on using metals entirely free from iron, experiments having 
shown that the yifoo part of the weight of the alloy of iron 
suffices to render it sensibly brittle. If any one of the con- 
stituent metals contains iron, the alloy, though showing a 



ALLOYS OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 44I 

beautiful color, will be too hard, and besides so brittle as 
to make it impossible to draw it out into fine wire or roll 
it out to thin sheet. 

Cooper has thoroughly examined the properties of plati- 
num alloys, and to his researches we are indebted for some 
important compositions which he has termed mirror-metal 
and pen-metal, they being especially suitable for these pur- 
poses. 

Cooper s mirror-metal. — Copper 35 parts, platinum 6, 
zinc 2, tin 16.5, arsenic 1. This alloy being entirely indif- 
ferent to the action of the weather, and taking a beautiful 
polish on account of its hardness, is especially adapted for 
the manufacture of mirrors for optical instruments. 

Cooper s pen-?netal. — The preceding alloy is aiso very 
suitable for the manufacture of pens, but is too expensive 
to compete successfully with steel. An alloy frequently 
used for the preparation of pen-metal consists of : Copper 
1 or 12 parts, platinum 4 or 50, silver 3 or 36. 

Their great hardness and resistance against atmospheric 
influences make Cooper's pen alloys very suitable for the 
manufacture of mathematical and other instruments of pre- 
cision. It can, for instance, scarcely be calculated how 
long a chronometer, whose train of wheels is constructed 
•of such an alloy, can run before it shows any irregularity 
attributable to wear. 

Palladiui7i alloys. — Palladium occurs associated with 
platinum, and is .obtained as a by-product in refining plat- 
inum. Pure palladium is but little used. It is sometimes 
employed in the preparation of mirrors by the galvanic 
process, or of semicircular protractors for fine mathematical 
instruments. 

The pure metal is, however, more frequently used in the 
preparation of alloys which are chiefly employed in dentistry 
and in the manufacture of fine watches. The most import- 
ant of these alloys are the silver alloys and the so-called 
palladium bearing-metal. 



442 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Alloys of palladium and silver. — This alloy, which is 
almost exclusively used for dental purposes, consists of 9 
parts of palladium and 1 part of silver. It does not oxi- 
dize, and is, therefore, very suitable for plates for artificial 
teeth. The following alloy is still more frequently used: 
Platinum 10 parts, palladium 8, gold 6. 

Palladium-bearing metal. — This alloy is uncommonly 
hard, and is said to produce less friction upon arbors of 
hard steel than the bearings of jewels generally used for 
fine watches. This alloy has the following composition l 
Palladium 24 parts, gold 72, silver 44, copper 92. 

Pa II a diu m a Hoys . 

I. II. 

Palladium 20 6 

Uold 80 18 

Silver • — 11 

Copper — 13 

Alloy No. I. is white, hard as steel, unchangeable in the 
air, and suitable for dental- purposes. Alloy No. II. is red 
brown, hard, has a very fine grain, and is especially suitable 
for pivot bearings of watch-works. 

The alloys of the other platinum metals are but little 
used, particularly on account of their rarity and costliness. 
The alloys of platinum and iridium are only used for special 
scientific purposes, for instance, for standard scales, etc. 
Iridium as well as rhodium possessess the property of im- 
parting great hardness to steel, but the rhodium and iridium 
steel found in commerce contain, in many cases, not a trace 
of either. The alloy of iridium with osmium is distinguished 
by great hardness and resistance, and has, therefore, been 
recommended for pivots, for fine instruments, and points for 
ships' compasses. 

Alloys for watch manufacturers. — For the manufacture of 
parts of watches which are to be insensible to magnetism, 
the following very tough and hard alloys may be recom- 
mended : 



ALLOY'S OF PLATINUM AND PLATINUM METALS. 443. 

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 

Platinum ••• 62.75 62.75 62.75 54-32 0.5 0.5 — 

Copper ..... 18.00 16.20 16.20 16. co 18.5 18.5 25.0 

Nickel 18.00 18.00 16.50 24.70 — 2.0 1.0 

Cadmium ••• 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 — — — 

Cobalt •• — r. 50 1.96 — — — 

Tungsten... — 1.80 1.80 1.77 — — — 

Palladium... — — — — 72.0 72.0 70.0 

Silver — — — — 6.5 7.0 4.0 

Rhodium ...— — — — 1.0 — — 

Gold — — — — 1.5— — 

Phosphor-iridium . — For preparing larger pieces of iri- 
dium than found in nature for making points for stylo- 
graphic pens, Mr. John Holland, of Cincinnati, has devised 
the following ingenious process: The ore is heated in a 
Hessian crucible to a white heat, and, after adding phos- 
phorus, the .heating is continued for a few minutes. In 
this manner a perfect fusion of the metal is obtained, which 
can be poured out and cast into any desired shape. The 
material is about as hard as the natural grains of iridium, 
and, in fact, seems to have all the properties of the metal 
itself. 

Phosphor-iridium, as this metal may be called, possesses 
some very remarkable properties. It is as hard, if not harder, 
than iridosmine, from which it is prepared. It is somewhat 
lighter, owing to its percentage of phosphorus and increase 
of volume. It is homogeneous and easy to polish, and forms 
some alloys impossible to prepare in any other manner. It 
combines with small quantities of silver and forms with it the 
most flexible and resisting alloy of silver. With gold or tin no 
alloy has thus far been obtained. Added in small quantities 
to copper it furnishes a metal possessing very small resist- 
ance to friction, and is especially adapted for articles subjected 
to great pressure. This alloy seems to possess more than any 
other metal the power of retaining luhricants. With iron, 
nickel, cobalt, and platinum, phosphor-iridium forms com- 
binations in all proportions, which are of great importance. 
With iron an alloy is obtained which retains the properties 



444 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of phosphor-iridium, although its hardness decreases with a 
larger addition of iron. The alloy is slightly magnetic, and 
is not attacked by acids and alkalies, and the best file pro- 
duces no effect upon it, even if it contains as much as 50 
per cent, of iron. With more than 50 per cent, of iron the 
power of resistance decreases gradually, and the nature of 
the metal approaches that of iron. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

ALLOYS OF MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR 
AMALGAMS. 

Mercury, as is well known, is the only metal which is 
liquid at an ordinary temperature. It solidifies at — 40 F., 
forming a ductile, malleable mass, and boils at 662 F., 
forming a colorless vapor ; it volatilizes, however, even at 
ordinary temperatures. With other metals it forms alloys 
which are called amalgams. According to Thomas Aquino 
and Libadius the term amalgam is derived from the Greek 
fidiay^a (softening body), and according to others from the 
Arabic word Algamals. The properties of the amalgams 
vary very much according to the metals used. In most 
cases they are at first liquid and after some time acquire a 
crystallized form, the mercury in excess being thereby 
eliminated. 

The amalgams offer an excellent means of studying the 
behavior of the metals toward each other, the examination 
being facilitated by the low temperature at which these 
combinations are formed. If a metal be dissolved in mer- 
cury, and the latter be present in excess, a crystalline com- 
bination will in a short time be observed to separate from 
the originally liquid mass. This crystalline combination 
forms the actual amalgam, and is composed of proportions 
which can be expressed according to determined atomic 
weights, and can be readily obtained by removing the ex- 
cess of mercury by pressure. 

Many amalgams require considerable time to pass into 
the crystalline state, and are at first so soft that they can 
be kneaded in the hand like wax, but harden completely in 

(445) 



446 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

time. They are especially adapted and much used for 
filling hollow teeth. 

Before the action of the galvanic current upon solutions 
of metals was known, amalgams were of great importance 
for gilding and silvering, which was effected by coating the 
article to be gilt or silvered with the amalgam and volatil- 
izing the mercury by the application of heat, whereby the 
gold and silver remained behind as a coherent coat (fire 
gilding). 

Mercury unites readily with lead, zinc, tin, bismuth, cad- 
mium, copper, gold, silver, magnesium, potassium and 
sodium, while iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese and platinum 
in the compact state combine with it with difficulty. 

Though the amalgams are of considerable theoretical in- 
terest and of great importance for a general knowledge of 
alloys, only a limited number of them are used in the in- 
dustries, which will be somewhat more closely described in 
the following : 

Gold amalgam. — Gold and mercury alloy freely, and the 
amalgam can be prepared by the direct union of the two 
metals. If the gold to be used has been obtained by the 
chemical process (by the reduction of salts of gold) it dis- 
solves with difficulty in the mercury, it being in a finely 
divided state, and the finer particles are apt to float upon the 
surface of the mercury. If, however, the gold is reduced 
in the form of larger crystals, the solution takes place in a 
comparatively short time. Such small gold crystals can be 
readily obtained by dissolving chloride of gold in amyl 
alcohol and heating the solution to boiling, whereby the 
gold is separated in the form of very small, lustrous 
crystals. 

In gaining gold from auriferous sand, gold amalgam is 
prepared in large masses, and by subsequent heating in iron 
retorts the combination is destroyed, the mercury volatiliz- 
ing, while the pure gold remains behind. Gold forms with 
mercury a chemical combination of the formula Au 4 Hg, 



MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 447 

showing great tendency towards crystallization, which, in 
preparing the amalgam, must be prevented as much as pos- 
sible, it being difficult to apply a crystalline amalgam to the 
articles to be gilded. 

An amalgam suitable for fire gilding is best prepared as 
follows : Heat in a graphite crucible, rubbed inside with 
chalk to prevent adhesion, the gold to be alloyed, to a red 
heat. It is not absolutely necessary to use chemically pure 
gold, but it should be at least 22 carat fine, and preferably 
alloyed with silver instead of copper. Gold amalgam con- 
taining .copper becomes stone hard in a short time, and a 
small content of it impairs its uniform application to the 
metals to be gilded. It is best to use the gold in the form 
of thin sheets, which is cut into small pieces by means of 
scissors, and brought into the crucible. When the gold is 
heated to a red heat, introduce about the eighth or ninth 
part of the weight of the gold of mercury previously heated 
to boiling. Stir constantly with an iron rod, and after a 
few minutes remove the crucible from the fire. If the 
finished amalgam were allowed to cool in the crucible, it 
would become strongly crystalline and be unsuitable for 
fire gilding. To prevent this it is at once poured into a 
larger vessel cooled on the outside by water. By keeping 
this amalgam for some time, crystallization takes place 
nevertheless, the amalgam separating from the mercury in 
excess, and it is therefore advisable to prepare it fresh a 
short time before use. Crystalline amalgam can be restored 
by heating it in a crucible with an excess of mercury. 

Gold-amalgam containing silver gives a green gilding 
and as this color is frequently desired argentiferous gold is 
used in preparing the amalgam. The color may be inten- 
sified by the application of a mass consisting of 17 parts 
.saltpeter, 14 parts sal ammoniac and 2 parts alum, and 
heating. 

In preparing the amalgam, as well as in using it for gild- 
ings a wind-furnace connected with a well-drawing chimney 



448 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

should be used, as otherwise the vapors evolved from the 
mercury exert an injurious effect upon the health of the 
workmen. 

A native gold amalgam containing 39.02 to 41.63 per 
cent, gold and 60.98 to 58.37 per cent, mercury is found in 
California. It has the formula Au 2 Hg 2 . 

Silver amalgam. — The properties of silver amalgam are 
nearly the same in most respects as those of gold amalgam, 
it having, however, a still greater tendency towards crystal- 
lization. Only pure silver can be used for its preparation, 
a content of copper producing the same injurious effect as 
in gold amalgam. Silver amalgam is best prepared by 
using pulverulent silver obtained by the reduction of silver 
solution. It may be prepared by bringing a solution of 
nitrate of silver in 10 to 15 parts of water into a bottle, 
adding a few small pieces of sheet zinc and vigorously shak- 
ing a few minutes. The silver separating in the form of a 
very fine black-gray powder need only be washed and dried 
to be suitable for the preparation of amalgam. This finely 
divided powder can be directly dissolved in the mercury, 
though it requires some time. The object is more quickly 
attained by heating the mercury nearly to boiling in a cru- 
cible, then throwing in the pulverulent silver and quickly 
combining the mass by vigorous stirring with an iron rod. 

Silver amalgam can also be prepared without the use of 
heat, it being only necessary to compound a concentrated 
solution of nitrate of silver (1 part of nitrate of silver in 3 
of distilled water) with four times the quantity of mercury 
and combine the liquids by shaking. The silver is reduced 
from the nitrate by the mercury and dissolves immediately 
in the excess of it. If the amalgam is to be used for fire- 
silvering, the presence of the small quantity of nitrate of 
mercury adhering to it is of no consequence, and it can be 
at once applied. 

Fire-gilding. — Fire-gilding, as well as fire-silvering, is 
always effected with a pure amalgam, i. e., such as is freed 



MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 449 

as much as possible from an excess of mercury. For this 
purpose the amalgam is tied in a bag of strong chamois 
leather and subjected to a gradually increasing pressure, 
whereby the mercury is forced through the pores of the 
leather while the amalgam remains in the bag. The pressed- 
out mercury contains a considerable quantity of gold or 
silver in solution, and is used in the preparation of fresh 
amalgam. 

Fire-gilding as well as silvering is, of course, only ap- 
plicable to articles of metals which, without melting, will 
stand a temperature near that of the boiling point of 
mercury. The amalgam adhering only to absolutely bright 
metals, the articles before gilding are subjected to a pre- 
paratory operation. This consists in heating them to a 
glowing heat, whereby the grease, dust, etc., adhering to 
the surface are burnt, and the metal becomes covered with 
a layer of oxide. The articles are then dipped in a mixture 
of 3 parts of nitric acid and i of sulphuric acid, whereby 
the oxide is rapidly dissolved and the metal acquires a 
bright surface. Articles to be heavily gilded must remain 
for some time in the acid mixture, a rougher surface being 
required for the adherence of a larger quantity of amalgam. 

The pickled articles are then rinsed in water without 
touching them with the hands, and, to prevent oxidation, 
placed in water until they are to be amalgamated, which 
consists in covering the bright articles with a layer of 
metallic mercury. This so-called amalgamating water is 
prepared by dissolving ioo parts by weight of mercury in 
no parts by weight of strong nitric acid, and compounding 
the solution with 25 parts by weight of water. This amal- 
gamating water is applied to the metals by mean of a brush 
of fine brass wire. By .the action of the metal upon the 
mercury salt the latter is reduced to metallic mercury in 
the form of very small drops, whereby the articles acquire 
a white color. 

The articles being thoroughly amalgamated, the amalgam 
29 



450 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

is quickly and uniformly applied with a stiff scratch-brush 
and the articles placed upon glowing coals, whereby the 
mercury vaporizes while the gold or silver remains behind 
in a coherent layer. While heating the articles must, how- 
ever, be frequently taken out and defective places provided 
with amalgam. This process is very injurious to health; 
the mercury volatilized by the heat insinuates itself into the 
body of the workman notwithstanding the greatest care, 
and those who are so fortunate as to escape for a time 
absolute disease are constantly liable to salivation from its 
effects. Though fire-gilding is the most durable, it is more 
and more abandoned and electro-plating substituted for it. 

Many articles are not finished by one gilding, and have 
to be subjected to the same process twice and frequently 
three times, whereby the layer of gold becomes, of course, 
thicker. By suitable treatment during the heating and by 
burning off the so-called gilder's wax, various shades can 
be given to the gilding. But, as these operations belong 
to another branch of industry, we cannot enter upon a 
further description of them. 

Copper amalgam. — On account of its peculiar properties 
copper amalgam finds quite an extensive use in several 
branches of industry, an amalgam of copper, tin, lead and 
antimony serving for the production of axle bearings. 

It crystallizes with great ease, and on solidifying becomes 
so hard that it can be polished like gold. It can also be 
worked under the hammer and between rolls, be stamped, 
and retains its metallic luster for some time on exposure to 
the air, but tarnishes quickly and turns black on being 
brought in contact with air containing sulphuretted hydro- 
gen. A peculiar property of amalgam of copper is that it 
becomes soft on being placed in boiling water, and so 
flexible that it can be used for molding the most delicate 
articles. In a few hours it again solidifies to a fine-grained 
mass which is quite malleable. 

Copper amalgam, on account of its peculiar properties, 



MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 45 I 

was formerly recommended for filling hollow teeth, but is 
no longer used for that purpose, there being other amal- 
gams just as suitable and free from poisonous copper. An 
important application of copper amalgam is for cementing 
metal, it being only necessary to apply it to the metals to 
be cemented, which must be bright and previously heated 
to from 176 to 194 F., and press them together; they 
will be joined as tightly as if soldered. 

Many directions have been given for preparing amalgam 
of copper, but it is effected with the greatest ease as fol- 
lows : Place strips of zinc in a solution of sulphate of cop- 
per and shake vigorously. The copper thus obtained in 
the form of a delicate powder is washed, and, while still 
moist, treated in a rubbing-dish with a solution of mercur- 
ous nitrate. Hot water is then poured over the copper, 
the dish kept warm, and the mercury added. The contents 
of the dish are then kneaded with a pestle until the pul- 
verulent copper combines with the mercury to a plastic 
mass; the longer the kneading is continued the more 
homogeneous the mass will be. The best proportions to 
use are 3 parts of copper and 7 of mercury. 

When the amalgam has the proper consistency, the water 
is poured off and the soft amalgam moulded in the shape in 
which it is to be preserved. For the purpose of cementing 
it is recommended to roll it into small cylinders about % 
inch in diameter and ^ to 1^ inches long. 

A composition of 25 parts of copper in fine powder, ob- 
tained by precipitation from solutions of the oxide by hydro- 
gen, or of the sulphate by zinc, washed with sulphuric acid 
and amalgamated with 7 parts of mercury, after being well 
washed and dried, is moderately hard, takes a good polish, 
and makes a fine solder for low temperatures. It will 
adhere to glass. 

An imitation of gold, known as Vienna metallic cement, 
which, on account of its golden-yellow color and capability 
for taking a fine polish, is suitable for the manufacture of 



452 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cheap jewelry, consists of copper 86.4 parts, mercury 13.6. 
The color of the alloy being, however, very easily affected 
by sulphuretted hydrogen, it is recommended to provide the 
articles with a thin coating of pure gold by the galvanic 
method. 

Dr onier s malleable bronze is made by adding 1 per cent, 
of mercury to the tin when hot, and this amalgam is care- 
fully introduced into the melted copper. 

Tin-amalgam. This amalgam was formerly of much 
greater importance for the manufacture of mirrors and 
looking-glasses than at present, when mirrors coated with 
a thin layer of silver surpass those coated with amalgam 
in beauty and cheapness. The great affinity of tin for mer- 
cury renders the preparation of the amalgam easy; all that 
is necessary being to combine the tin, best in the form of 
fine shavings, or foil, with the mercury. According to the 
quantity of mercury rubbed together with the tin, an amal- 
gam solidifying in a shorter or longer time is obtained. 

Tin-amalgam for filling teeth. — This amalgam is pre- 
pared by intimately rubbing together 1 part of tin with 4 
of mercury, removing the excess of mercury by pressing in 
a leather bag, and kneading or rubbing for some time. It 
is obtained in a flexible mass which hardens in a few days. 

Amalgam for mirrors and looking-glasses. — The amal- 
gam which serves for silvering mirrors is a complete satura- 
tion of the two metals. It is, however, not prepared by 
itself, but directly upon the plate of glass which is to form 
the mirror. The operation is as follows : The glass plate 
having been thoroughly cleansed from all grease and dirt 
with putty-powder and wood ash, the workman proceeds to 
lay a sheet of tin foil of larger dimensions than the plate to 
be silvered smoothly upon the silvering table, pressing out 
with a cloth-dabber all wrinkles and places likely to form 
air-bubbles. A small quantity of mercury is then poured 
upon it and uniformly distributed by means of a fine woolen 
cloth. When the surface is uniformly covered more mercury 



MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 453 

is added so as to attain a height of 2 or 3 lines ; the coating 
of oxide is removed with a wooden rod and a brilliant sur- 
face produced. The plate of glass is then pushed slowly 
forward from the side with the longest edge foremost, and 
dipping below the surface of the mercury so as completely 
to exclude the air. In this way the glass is brought into 
contact with the metals and a brilliant surface produced. 
The plate may now be said to be floating on a bed of 
mercury. To get rid of the excess of metal the mirror is 
loaded with weights and the table inclined io° or 12 , when 
the excess of mercury drains off. A further portion is got 
rid of by setting the plate up on edge, and in the course of 
three or four weeks a dry, permanent coating of tin amal- 
gam is left upon the plate. 

If curved glass plates are to be converted into mirrors, 
the amalgam is prepared by itself, and after spreading it as 
uniformly as possible upon the glass the latter is heated 
until the amalgam melts. 

This method of silvering has many objections : The vapor 
of mercury is poisonous to the workmen; the plates are 
liable to fracture from the heavy load placed upon them, 
and when set up on edge drops of mercury sometimes 
trickle down, carrying the amalgam with them, thus render- 
ing it necessary to resilver the whole mirror. Moreover, 
the amalgam is liable to spoil by crystallization or carriage. 
For these reasons this process has been almost entirely 
abandoned and that of silvering by precipitation substituted 
for it. 

Amalgam for coati7ig rubbers of electric machines. — This 
amalgam, known as Kienmayer's consists of zinc 1 part, 
tin 1, and mercury 2. It is prepared by bringing the 
metals in the form of fine shavings free from oxide into a 
previously heated iron mortar and rubbing it with the 
mercury to a homogeneous mass. The amalgam has a 
tendency to become crystalline, even if kept in well-stop- 
pered glass-vessels, but it can be readily pulverized and if 



454 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

mixed with a very small quantity of tallow does excellent 
service. By this method of preparation the disadvantage 
of the otherwise unadvoidable melting of the solid metals 
is avoided. 

Singer s amalgam for the same purpose consists of tin 
i part, zinc 2, and mercury 3^ to 6. Bottger melts in an 
iron spoon 2 parts zinc and carefully adds, with constant 
stirring, 1 part mercury. 

Musiv silver. — This is a combination of tin 3 parts, bis- 
muth 3 and mercury 1%, and serves for the spurious silver- 
ing of brass and copper, the amalgam mixed with 6 parts 
bone ash being applied by rubbing the articles with it. For 
silvering paste-board, wood, paper, etc., the mass is 
triturated with white of tgg, gum solution, glue-water, or 
varnish and applied to the articles. 

Amalgam for tinning. — Small iron articles, pins, etc., 
may be tinned by pickling them in an acid, dipping in tin 
amalgam made liquid by means of hot water, blanching, 
washing, drying with coarse bran, and polishing. 

Zinc amalgam. — Zinc unites with mercury at the ordi- 
nary temperature, but more readily at a higher one. 
Triturate 1 part zinc filings, 4 parts chloride of mercury 
and 2 parts of water, adding a few drops of mercury, or, 
mix two parts mercury with two parts zinc melted in an 
iron spoon, stirring constantly with a clay rod. The very 
brittle amalgam is powdered, triturated with tallow, and 
may be used for coating rubbers of electric machines. 
• Zinc amalgam is electrolytically prepared by connecting 
by means of a wire the zinc cylinder of a Daniell cell with 
a small quantity of mercury covered by a zinc sulphate 
solution, a zinc wire serving as anode of the battery dip- 
ping into the solution. 

For the amalga7nation of zinc for voltaic cells brush the 
zinc with ammonium zinc chloride at 450 to 500 F. and 
then apply the mercury, when combination will immediately 
and completely take place. 



MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 455 

The zinc may also be pickled in sulphuric acid and the 
mercury applied with a metallic scratch-brush dipped in 
dilute sulphuric acid. 

The zinc elements may also be immersed in a fluid pre- 
pared by dissolving 7 ozs. of mercury in 35 ozs. of aqua- 
regia and 39 ozs. of hydrochloric acid. With about 1 quart 
of this fluid 150 elements can be amalgamated. 

Spurious gilding of copper by the formation of brass is 
produced by boiling the copper article in a mixture of tar- 
tar, hydrochloric acid and zinc amalgam (1 part zinc and 12 
parts mercury). 

Cadmium-amalgam. — Cadmium readily combines with 
mercury to an amalgam which easily becomes crystalline. 
For the preparation of the actual cadmium-amalgam, whose 
composition is Cd 5 Hg 8 , proceed in the same manner as 
already described for other amalgams. Heat the mercury 
nearly to boiling in a crucible and introduce the cadmium in 
the form of thin siieet. Cadmium .amalgam remains soft for 
some time and becomes crystalline only after a considerable 
period. The mass obtained by heating is, therefore, allowed 
to stand in the crucible until the excess of mercury sepa- 
rates out, or it can be separated in the ordinary manner by 
pressing in a leather bag. 

Pure cadmium-amalgam forms a tin-white or silver-white 
mass which softens on being moderately heated and can be 
kneaded like wax. It is used for filling hollow teeth, either 
by itself or compounded with other metals, which make it 
still better for the purpose. An addition of tin or bismuth 
makes it more pliant in the heat, and for this reason the 
mass used for filling teeth is at present frequently composed 
of amalgams containing several metals. A few such com- 
positions are given in the following. Those containing 
lead are, however, not recommended, as lead has poisonous 
properties and is attacked even in the form of an amalgam 
by organic acids : 



456 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Amalgams for filling teeth. 
Parts. 

L II. III. IV. V. 

Cadmium 25.99 2I -74 1 1 to 2 3 

Mercury 74-01 78.26 — — — 

Tin — — 2 2 4 

Lead — — — 7 to 8 15 

Amalgam No. I. corresponds to the centesimal composi- 
tion of the above-mentioned combination of cadmium and 
mercury, and is well adapted for filling teeth, it acquiring 
in time such hardness that it can be worked with the lathe 
or file, and, of course, becomes hard in the mouth. Cad- 
mium-amalgams being very ductile can, moreover, be used 
for many other purposes. An amalgam of equal parts 0} 
cadmium and mercury is extremely plastic and can be 
stretched under the hammer like pure gold. It is silver- 
white and constant in the air. 

Evans s metallic cement. — This alloy is obtained by dis- 
solving a cadmium-amalgam consisting of 25.99 parts of 
cadmium and 74.01 of mercury in an excess of mercury, 
slightly pressing the solution in a leather bag and thor- 
oughly kneading. By kneading, especially if the amalgam 
be previously heated to about 97 F., Evans's metallic 
cement is rendered very plastic, and like softened wax can 
can be brought into any desired form. On cooling it ac- 
quires considerable hardness, which is, however, not equal 
to that of pure cadmium-amalgam. 

Amalgams of the " fusible alloys." — The fusible alloys 
already mentioned in speaking of the alloys of cadmium 
and bismuth possess the property of melting in an amal- 
gamated state at a still lower temperature than by them- 
selves. By adding a suitable quantity of mercury to them 
they can be converted into masses well adapted for filling 
teeth or for cementing metals. 

Amalgam of Lipowitz s ?jielal. — This amalgam is pre- 
pared as follows: Melt in a dish cadmium 3 parts, tin 4* 



MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 457 

bismuth 15, and lead 8, and add to the melted alloy, mer- 
cury 2 parts, previously heated to about 212 F. Amal- 
gamation takes place readily and smoothly. After the in- 
troduction of the mercury the dish is immediately taken 
from the fire and the liquid mass stirred until it solidifies. 
While Lipowitz's alloy becomes soft at 140 F. and melts 
at 158 F., the amalgam melts at about 143. 5 F. It is 
very suitable tor the production of impressions of objects 
of natural history, direct impressions of leaves and other 
delicate parts of plants being obtained, which, as regards 
sharpness, are equal to the best plaster of Paris casts, and, 
on account of the silver-white color, fine luster, and con- 
stancy of the amalgam, present a very neat appearance. 
The amalgam can also be used for the manufacture of small 
hollow statuettes and busts, which can be readily gilt or 
bronzed by the galvanic process. 

The manufacture of small statuettes is readily effected by 
preparing a hollow mould of plaster of Paris, and, after 
uniformly heating it to about 140 F., pouring in the 
melted amalgam. The mould is then swung to and fro, 
this being continued until the amalgam is solidified. After 
cooling the mould is taken apart and the seams trimmed 
with a sharp knife. Some experience being required to 
swing the mould so that all parts are uniformly moistened 
with the amalgarh, it may happen that defective casts are at 
first obtained ; in such case the amalgam is simply remelted 
and the operation commenced anew. With some skill the 
operator will soon succeed in applying a uniform layer to 
the sides of the mould and preparing casts with very thin 
sides. The operation may also be modified by placing the 
mould upon a rapidly revolving disk and pouring in the 
melted amalgam in a thin stream. By the centrifugal force 
developed the melted metal is hurled against the sides of 
the mould, and in this manner statuettes of considerable 
.size can be cast. 

Iron-amalgam. — Iron and mercury do not unite directly 



458 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and can only be combined by means of a third metal, etc., 
though it is sometimes doubtful whether an actual amalgam 
is formed. According to Bottger, the amalgam may be 
prepared by triturating 1 part finely divided iron with 2 
parts mercuric chloride and 2 parts water, and adding a 
few drops of - mercury. 

Gulielmo triturates in a porcelain dish 4^ parts pulver- 
ized ferrous sulphate and 1 part pulverized zinc with 12 
parts water of 140 to 167 F., and frees the iron amalgam 
which after some time is formed by washing from the rest. 

According to Joule a crystalline mass of lustrous iron 
amalgam, especially beautiful if composed of 100 parts 
mercury and 47.5 parts iron, is formed by connecting by 
means of wire the zinc cylinder of a Daniell cell with a 
small quantity of mercury by a ferrous sulphate solution, an 
iron wire dipping into the latter serving as anode of the 
battery. According to the duration and intensity of the 
current, the amalgams are solid or liquid, crystalline, 
and with metallic luster with different contents of iron 
(0.143 to 103.2 iron to 100 mercury). The amalgams are 
magnetic and when subjected to violent shocks the iron is. 
superficially separated in pulverulent form. When heated 
to the boiling point of mercury, ferric oxide remains be- 
hind, sparks being emitted. When submerged under water 
the amalgam becomes in a few days covered with rust and, 
on shaking the vessel, is almost immediately disintegrated, 
the iron floating in the form of a black powder upon the 
mercury. 

Iron articles to be uniformly gilded with gold amalgam 
are frequently first coated with a layer of mercury by boil- 
ing them after thorough cleaning, in a porcelain or clay 
vessel in a mixture of mercury 12 parts, zinc 1 part, ferrous 
sulphate 2 parts, water 12 parts and hydrochloric acid i>2 
parts. A mirror-bright surface is thus obtained to which 
the gold amalgam can be uniformly applied. 

Bismuth-amalgam. — By introducing mercury into melted 



MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 459 

bismuth a combination of the two metals is readily effected. 
The resulting' amalgam being very thinly fluid can be ad- 
vantageously used for filling out very delicate moulds. 
Other amalgams are also rendered more thinly fluid by an 
addition of bismuth-amalgam, a few examples of which 
have already been given under cadmium-amalgams, and such 
combinations, being cheaper than pure bismuth-amalgam, 
are frequently used. 

Bismuth-amalgam can be used for nearly all purposes for 
which cadmium-amalgams are employed. On account of 
their luster, which is at least equal to that of silver, they 
are preferred for certain purposes, such as for silvering 
glass globes and the preparation of anatomical specimens. 

Amalgams for silvering glass globes, etc. — Glass globes 
can be readily silvered by either of the following composi- 
tions : 

Parts. 

I~ II. ILL 

Bismuth 222 

Lead 2 2 2 

Tin 2 2 2 

Mercury 2 4 18 

First melt the lead and tin and then add the bismuth. 
After removing the dross pour the mercury into the com- 
pound and stir vigorously. Leaves of Dutch gold are 
sometimes introduced into the mixtures according to the 
color to be imparted to the globes. For silvering the 
globes heat them carefully to the melting point of the amal- 
gam. Then pour a small quantity of the amalgam into the 
cavity of the globe and swing it to and fro until its entire 
surface appears covered. 

Amalgam of bismuth for anatomical preparations. — Col- 
ored wax was formerly exclusively used by anatomists for 
injecting vessels. A bismuth-amalgam, being of a silvery- 
white color, is, however, preferable, and by becoming hard 
on cooling contributes essentially to the solidity of the 



460 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

preparation. The amalgam used for the purpose melts at 
169 F. and remains liquid at 140 F., the latter property 
rendering its use especially suitable for larger preparations. 
It is composed of: Bismuth 10 parts, lead 3.2, tin 3.5, 
mercury 2. For use, heat the amalgam in a dish in a 
water-bath to 212 F., which insures it being forced by the 
injection-pump into the finest ramifications of the vessels. 

Metallic pencils may be prepared from an alloy of 70 
parts lead, 90 parts bismuth and 8 parts mercury. The 
lead and bismuth are first melted, and the melt allowed to 
cool somewhat when the mercury is added, stirring con- 
stantly. If necessary the whole is again heated and the 
alloy cast in moulds. 

Pholin s silver-like alloy consists of 19.23 per cent, bis- 
muth, 76.90 tin, 3.84 copper and a trace of mercury. 

Sodium-amalga,7n. — By itself this amalgam is not used, it 
quickly decomposing on exposure to the air into caustic 
soda and mercury. It can, however, be used in the prepar- 
ation of many amalgams which cannot be made by the 
direct method. By bringing, for instance, amalgam of 
sodium together with a solution of metallic chloride, the 
respective metal is generally separated from the chlorine 
combination by the sodium, and the moment it is liberated 
unites with the mercury to an amalgam while the sodium 
combines with the chlorine. The presence of a very small 
quantity of sodium amalgam exerts, moreover, a very favor- 
able effect upon the formation of amalgams, and by its use 
in the process of amalgamation for gaining gold and silver 
considerable time is saved and the amalgamation becomes 
more complete. 

Sodium and mercury unite at the ordinary temperature 
to an amalgam which in the proportion of 1 part sodium to 
80 parts or more of mercury is soft to liquid, but solid with 
a larger content of sodium. For the preparation of an 
amalgam as rich in sodium as possible, 35 ozs. of mercury 
are heated in an iron dish to 300 F. and 1 oz. of sodium 



MERCURY AND OTHER METALS OR AMALGAMS. 461 

in coarser pieces is in rapid succession introduced, the sod- 
ium pieces being pressed beneath the mercury by means of a 
rod. Vigorous heating accompanied by fire phenomena 
takes place, vapors of mercury being at the same time 
evolved. After cooling the amalgam congeals to a solid 
brittle mass. It has to be kept protected from moisture. 

Rosenfeld * uses for the preparation of the amalgam a 
crucible with a perforated lid. The aperture in the lid is 
closed by a well-fitting cork and in the latter is secured a 
pointed wire reaching to the bottom of the crucible. The 
total quantity of sodium in one piece is fastened to the 
wire and dips into a mixture of i part amyl alcohol and 9 
parts petroleum. When the sodium has acquired a pure 
silver-white color, it is taken from the fluid and brought 
into the crucible containing the mercury. The combination 
of the two metals takes place instantaneously with the 
emission of a peculiar hissing noise and the appearance of 
fire. However, as the crucible is at the moment of reac- 
tion closed with the lid, but little mercury vapor passes 
into the air. 

Potassium-amalgam is obtained by the introduction of 
potassium into heated mercury, the air being as much as 
possible excluded, or by pressing the freshly cut surface 
of the metal upon mercury, vigorous heating taking place 
thereby, and an amalgam is formed which become rigid if 
it contains over 3 per cent, potassium. 

By introducing 3 per cent, sodium-amalgam into potash 
lye a crystallizing combination Hg 24 K 2 is formed in the 
shape of hard lustrous cubes with octahedron and dode- 
cahedron faces. The cubes when heated to 824 F. leave 
behind crystalline HgK 2 which spontaneously ignites in 
the air. The amalgam decomposes slowly in moist air and. 
under water, and, like sodium-amalgam, may be used for 
amalgamating iron and platinum, as well as in the amalga- 

* Berichte der chemischen Gesellschaft, 24, 1659. 



462 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

mation of silver and gold ores, the amalgam taking up gold 
and silver with greater ease than mercury. 

Nickel-amalgam is formed in the shape of a kneadable 
mass by rubbing together concentrated nickel chloride 
solution and an amalgam formed from 1 part sodium and 
99 parts mercury, and treating the nickel amalgam thus 
formed with water until the latter runs off clear. It may 
also be formed by the addition of mercury to nickel sulphate 
solution. 

Platinum amalgam. A thickly-fluid lead-gray mass is 
obtained by triturating spongy platinum with heated mer- 
cury, or by introducing sodium amalgam into a platinic 
chloride solution. 

Joule obtained an amalgam of a doughy consistency by 
allowing mercury to remain for a longer time in platinic 
chloride solution. After being pressed the amalgam con- 
tained Hg 2 Pt. 

By boiling, under exclusion of air, thin platinum sheet in 
mercury, the former is attacked by the latter and the greater 
portion of the platinum appears to be suspended in the 
form of fine black dust in the mercury. If this dust is 
forced upwards by a current of air and the mercury is iso- 
lated, only an inconsiderable quantity of platinum remains 
behind. 

Makenzie s amalgam. — This amalgam, which is solid at 
an ordinary temperature and becomes liquid by simple 
friction, may be prepared as follows : Melt 2 parts of bis- 
muth and 4 of lead in separate crucibles, then throw the 
melted metals into two other crucibles, each containing 1 
part of mercury. When cold these alloys or amalgams are 
solid, but will melt when rubbed one against the other. 



CHAPTER XX. 
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

Mixture especially adapted for serving as a protective 
cover in remelting alloys. — This mixture is composed of 
borax, calcined soda, calcined alum and fluorspar, each I 
part. 

Alloy for spoons. — A beautiful alloy closely resembling 
silver is obtained by melting together 50 parts of copper, 
25 of nickel, and 25 of zinc. 

Alloy resembling German silver consists of copper 58 
parts, zinc 27, nickel 12, tin 2, aluminium 0.5, and bismuth 
0.5. The separate metals are first melted by themselves 
and then combined by vigorous stirring. This metal re- 
tains its polish for a long time. 

Alloy resembling silver. — Copper 70 parts, manganese 
30, zinc 20 to 25. 

Non-oxidizable alloy. — Iron 10 parts, nickel 36, copper 
18, tin 18, zinc 18. This metal has a white color, with a 
slightly reddish tinge. 

Calin. — This term is applied to an alloy for metallic foils 
used by the Chinese for lining tea-chests. It is composed 
of lead 126 parts, tin 17.5, and copper 1.25, besides a trace 
of zinc. 

Alloy for moulds for pressed glass. — An alloy suitable 
for this purpose is obtained, according to C. H. Knoop, of 
Dresden, by melting together 100 parts of iron with 10 to 
25 parts of nickel. 

New methods of preparing alloys. — The alloys consist of 
heavy metals and the sulphides of the alkali metals or 
metals of the alkaline earths. Preferably sulphide of 
strontium is alloyed with copper in order to obtain a pro- 

(463) 



464 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cluct of a constant gold-like color. For this purpose zinc 
is melted together with 8 to 15 per cent, of calcined stron- 
tium sulphate and the resulting alloy allowed to cool. To 
this alloy a varying quantity of copper is added, according 
to the color and power of resistance required. As much 
of the zinc as may be desired can be expelled by subsequent 
cupellation. 

E. Plazet of Paris has patented the following process.* 
Chromium is added to metals or alloys, such as copper, 
nickel, aluminium, gold, silver, zinc, lead, platinum, tin, 
manganese, tungsten, etc. The chromium must be pure 
(prepared by electrolysis) and may be coated with copper, 
etc., to prevent oxidation. It makes the alloy harder and 
increases electrical resistance. To facilitate the admixture 
of the chromium certain substances used as oxides, borates, 
or fluorides of zinc or manganese may be added. Alloys thus 
prepared are suitable for many purposes, and as non-mag- 
netic metal for bells, watches, etc. 

Alloys of indium and gallium. — L. de Boisbaudran, the 
discoverer of gallium, has experimented with alloys of 
indium and gallium. They are distinguished by not having 
a fixed melting point, but soften gradually, like fats. In 
this semi-liquid condition they form a mixture of melted 
and crystalline metal. L. de Boisbaudran has prepared the 
following alloys : 

1. Indium 227 parts, gallium 69.9 parts. This alloy is 
white, granular, and can be readily cut with the knife ; it 
begins to melt at 132. 8° F., and is viscid at 167 F. 

2. Indium 113.5 parts, gallium 69.9. This alloy forsm a 
white coherent mass, but is sfill softer than the first alloy. 
It is hard at 60. 8° F., semi-liquid at 113 F., and liquid at 
from 140 to 176 F. 

3. Indium 113.5 parts, gallium 139.8. White; soft. It 
hardens at 60.8 F., is butyraceous at 64.4 F.; liquid from 
140 to 176 F. 

* English patent 202. 1896. 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 



465 



4. Indium 113.5 parts, gallium 279.6. This alloy is 
white, commences to melt at62° F., is semi-liquid at 95 F., 
and liquid at 122 F. 

Steel composition. — Steel shavings 60 parts, copper 22.5, 
mercury 20, tin 15, lead 7.5, and zinc 15, are gradually 
introduced and dissolved in 860 parts of nitric acid. The 
resulting reddish-brown paste is dried, melted together 
with twenty times its weight of zinc, and the mass cast in 
ingots. After cooling, the alloy is remelted with a corre- 
sponding addition of tin, according to whether it is to be 
softer or harder. 

Alloys for drills, chisels, etc. — These alloys have the ad- 
vantage over hardened steel in that tools made from them 
do not require tempering or dressing when in use. Cast- 
ings are simply made and an edge ground on with an emery 
wheel. 



Cast iron 

Chromium 

Ferro-manganese 

Tungsten 

Aluminium 

Nickel 

Copper 

Wrought iron . . . 



I. 


II. 


For drills, 


For 


chisels, etc. 


cutters, etc. 


17.25 


17-25 


1.50 


2.00 


3-oo 


4-50 


5-25 


7-50 


1-25 


2.00 


0.50 


0.75 


0.75 


1. 00 


70.50 


65.00 



The alloys are prepared by first melting in a graphite 
crucible the cast iron and tungsten, then covering the 
melted mass with charcoal and borax and adding the ferro- 
manganese and chromium. The alloy thus obtained, to- 
gether with the wrought iron, is again liquefied in a clay 
crucible and the copper, nickel and aluminium are added. 
The contents of the crucible are covered with charcoal, and 
the alloy is finally cast in sand moulds. 

Alloys of iron with chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, 
30 



466 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

etc. For the preparation of such alloys the Electro- 
Metallurgical Co. of London has patented the following 
process:* Previous to adding the chromium, etc., to the 
melted iron or steel its content of oxygen is entirely with- 
drawn by aluminium. TT12 effect of this is that as all the 
chromium, etc. added alloys with the iron, and only a very 
minute portion of it is used for the deoxidation of the iron, 
the intended percentages of the additions can be accurately 
maintained. 

Alloys of copper and iron are prepared according to a 
method patented by A. F. V. M. Baron, of Paris, t by heat- 
ing the copper to a cherry or very bright red heat, then 
adding the required quantity of a mixture of rosin and an 
oxalate or another similar organic salt which, when decom- 
posed by the heat, evolves carbonic oxide, carbonic dioxide 
and water, and finally adding the required quantity of iron. 

Malleable ferro-cobalt and ferro-nickel. For the direct 
gaining of malleable ferro-cobalt or ferro-nickel, the " Fon- 
derie de nickel et metaux blancs " of Paris claims to utilize 
either the ores themselves, or to prepare first an especially 
suitable initial product for the final result by melting to- 
gether corresponding quantities of nickel or cobalt and 
chromium ores. In melting together the ores the degree 
of heat at which the liquation of the iron would take place 
must, however, not be attained. This product of melting, 
or the raw materials themselves, are melted together in a 
suitable crucible with potassium ferrocyanide and peroxide 
of manganese. In running off, a small quantity of alu- 
minium is added. According to the condition desired for 
the final product, arid according to the original content of 
iron of the ores, a larger or smaller quantity of cast-iron or 
wrought-iron can be added from the start, whereby a more 
or less soft and malleable product is obtained. If, for in- 
stance, an alloy of 70 per cent, of nickel and 30 per cent, of 

* German patent, 90,746. t U. S. patent, 577,182. 1897. 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 467 

iron, with a very small content of sulphur, be used, 71.9 
parts of fused nickel, 12 of peroxide of manganese, 16 of 
potassium ferrocyanide, and 0.1 of aluminium are taken for 
the mass to be melted together. If, however, nickel ore 
containing only about 25 per cent, of pure nickel, with 64 
per cent, of iron and 1 1 per cent, of other admixtures, be 
used, the melting material is best composed of about 82 
parts of fused nickel, 8 of peroxide of manganese, and 10 
of potassium ferrocyanide. The alloys thus obtained are 
claimed to excel in perfect malleability, and completely to 
retain this .property when remelted, so that, on the one 
hand, ma'leable ingots are at once produced, and, on the 
other, all waste and defective castings can be again utilized. 

Bronze resisting acids. — Debie gives the following re- 
ceipt : Copper 15 parts, zinc 2.34, lead 1.82, antimony 1. 
This alloy melted in a crucible can be worked in the 
ordinary manner, and is claimed to answer as substitute for 
lead for lining vessels used in the manufacture of sulphuric 
acid, etc. 

Zinc-iron, being very brittle, is used very seldom as an 
alloy, but on account of its brilliant light promises to be- 
come of considerable value for pyrotechnics. Theoretically 
it is also interesting as an alloy of a very volatile with a non- 
volatile metal, and, further, it offers the readiest means of 
obtaining zinc in a finely divided state for purposes where 
the presence of iron is not objectionable. The best method 
of preparing the alloy is as follows : Heat 1 to 2 pounds of 
zinc in a clay crucible to the melting point, then throw 3 
to 3.5 ounces of anhydrous sodium ferrous chloride upon 
the surface of the melted zinc and immediately cover the 
crucible. A very vigorous reaction takes place during 
the formation of the alloy mixed with zinc chloride (Zn + 
FeCl 2 +Fe). The excess of the zinc alloys with the re- 
duced iron and forms the exceedingly brittle zinc-iron 
. which can be readily pulverized. 

An alloy which expands on cooling is prepared from lead 



468 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

9 parts, antimony 2, and bismuth 2. It is very suitable for 
filling up small holes and defective places in cast-iron. 

Spences metal. — This compound is an English invention, 
and is named after the inventor. Strictly speaking, it is 
not a metal, but a compound obtained by dissolving 
metallic sulphides in melted sulphur, which is found to be 
capable of receiving into solution nearly all the sulphides of 
the metals. For most purposes Mr. Spence employs in the 
production of his " metal " the sulphides of iron, lead and 
zinc, in varying proportions, according to the quality of 
the product desired, which will depend on the uses for 
which it is designed. On cooling the mixture solidifies, 
forming a homogenous, tenacious mass, having ordinarily 
a specific gravity of 3.37 to 3.7. It is said to be exceed- 
ingly useful in the laboratory for making the air-tight con- 
nections between glass tubes by means of rubber and a 
water or mercury jacket where rigidity is no advantage. 
The fusing point is so low that it may be run into the outer 
tube on to the rubber, which it grips, on cooling, like 
a vise and makes it perfectly tight. It melts at 320 F., 
expands on cooling, is claimed to be capable of resisting 
well the disintegrating action of the atmosphere, is attacked 
by but few acids and by them but slowly, or by alkalies ; is 
insoluble in water and may receive a high polish. It makes 
clean, full castings, taking very perfect impressions ; it is 
cheap and easily worked. It has been used as a solder for 
gas-pipes and as a joint material in place of lead. 

Lutecine, or Paris metal. — Copper 800 parts, nickel 160, 
tin 20, cobalt 10, iron 5, and zinc 5. 

Alloys for small patterns in foundries. 
I. Tin 7.5 parts, lead 2.5. 
II. Zinc 75 parts, tin 25. 
III. Tin 30 parts, lead 70. 

The last of these alloys is for patterns which will not be 
in frequent use and which may be mended, bent, etc. The 
first gives harder and stiffer patterns ; the second is harder 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 469 

than tin and more tenacious than zinc, while at the same 
time it preserves a certain ductility. 

Alloys' for calico-printing rollers. — Hauvel considers a 
semi-hard bronze of the following composition the best 
material for the rollers : Copper 86 parts, tin 14, zinc 2. 

Rendel, on the other hand, found an English roller mate- 
rial composed of: Copper 5.6 parts, zinc 78.3, tin 15.8. 
Though this compound gives a hard, fine-grained alloy, it 
is likely to be very readily attacked by the colors used in 
printing. 

According to analysis by J. Depierre and P. Spiral, the 
composition of the scrapers (sometimes called doctors or 
ductors) intended to remove the surplus of colors from the 
rollers is as follows : 

Copper. Zinc. Tin. 

Yellow French scrapers 78.75 12.50 8.75 

Yellow English scrapers 80.50 10.50 8.00 

Yellow German scrapers 85.80 9.80 4.90 

According to the researches of the above-named scien- 
tists, three groups are to be distinguished: 1. Copper with 
95 to 100 per cent, of copper; 2. Brass with about 60 per 
cent, of copper and 40 per cent, of zinc ; and 3. Alloys. 
In the annexed table I, the physical properties of the ex- 
amined pieces are given, whereby it has, however, to be re- 
marked that in rollers for printing calico, where the hard- 
ness of the metal is of considerable importance, the chemical 
composition alone does not express the characteristics of 
the metal, they depending also on the manner of hardening 
and tempering. 

Table II, shows the chemical composition of the samples. 

Besides red copper the alloys containing 25 to 30 per 
cent, of zinc and 75 to 70 per cent, of copper are essenti- 
ally suitable for rollers. Even as small a content of lead as 
0.5 per cent, exerts an injurious influence, and the samples 
containing lead showed blow-holes. The presence of phos- 
phorus could not be detected in any of the samples, but 



47° 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Messrs. Depierre and Spiral are of the opinion that rolls of 
copper, containing I to 2 per cent, of phosphorus, would 
yield excellent results as regards resistance against chemical 
influences, as well as hardness, fineness of grain, homo- 
geneousness and durability. An addition of one per cent, 
of phosphorus might also be recommended for varieties of 
brass containing 30 to 35 per cent, of zinc. 

Table I. 







en 


'33 








a 


Color. 




Grain. 


Hardness. 


Remarks. 


rt 

in 




O 
I 


P 
8.82 








1 


red 


coarse 


hard 




2 


" 


1 8.83 fine 


" 





3 


" 


1 8.82 coarse 


very soft 





4 


" 


1 8.83 very fine 


medium 





5 


yellow 


3 8.40 coarse 


hard 


blow-holes. 


6 




28.25 very fine, horac- 
1 geneous 






7 


C i 


38.58 fine, not homo- 


very brittle 





1 


1 geneous 






8 red 


1 8.*8 very fine 


hard 


burnt. 


9 




1 8.80 coarse 

1 ! 


soft 


suitable for print- 
ing. 


10 


yellow 


28.15 very fine [ous 


hard 


very unequal. 


11 


" 


3 8.45 coarse, homegene- 


' ' 





12 




3 8.50 fine, not very 
homogeneous 


very brittle 


many blow-holes 
(i«35). 


13 


red 


1 — | 


— 


very good. 


14 


" 


1 8.90 fine 


hard 


bad. 


IS 


yellow 


3 8.35 " 


" 


very good. 


16 


" 


38.20 " 


" 


blow-holes. 


17 


i ( 


28.10 fine, homogeneous 


" 


very bad. 


18 red 


1 8.90 fine 

1 




good. 


19 — 
20, yellow 


2 8.20 coarse, not very 


soft 









homegenet us 






21 


' ' 


28.15 fi ne > homogeneous 


hard 





22 


i c 


28.22 middling 


soft 





23 


red 


18.85 fine 


hard 





24 


yellow 


2 


— 





— 





25 


gray-yellow 


3 








attacked by colors. 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

Table II. 



471 



No. of the 
samples. 


Copper. 


Tin. 




3 


OQ.II 


0.05 




4 


• 99 16 


0.02 




8 


99-13 


0.03 


<D 


9 


59-03 


0.03 


ft 


1 


99-93 


traces 


O 

U 


2 


99.07 


" 


14 


99.40 






18 


99.84 


' ' 




23 


99-52 






6 


60.33 


0.03 




10 


61.70 


0.08 


<n 


20 


64.41 


0.21 


u 

pq 


22 


68.00 


— 


21 


58.25 


■ — 




17 


77-68 


traces 




11 


74-51 


2.80 




12 


70. 96 


2-55 


tn 


7 


77-63 


2-t* 


>. 


5 


74.12 


2-37 




15 


79-42 


4-17 


< 


10 


72.15 


3.27 




24 


70 40 


— 




'25 


15-0 





Lead. 



0.12 
0.12 
0.19 
0.12 
0.14 
0.07 
48 
traces 



Zinc. 



o.=;7 
0.58 
0-45 

0.L0 

O.67 



o.£8 
0.C4 
2. to 
o.39 
o.43 
0.42 



2.18 
i.fc8 



1 23 
1. 71 
o.co 



38.68 

37-51 
51.88 

30.53 
41.02 
41.41 



19.85 

17*3 

17.10 

^c.5; 

14.49 

22.10 

28.0 

C4.0 



Remarks. 



some aluminium. 

seme aluminium and sulphur. 



all contain traces of arsenic 
and iron. 



Alloy for compensation balances. For this purpose Ber- 
guet uses the following alloy : Silver 2 parts, copper 2 parts, 
zinc 1 part. The silver is first melted and the zinc, in small 
pieces, is then thrown in. The metals are stirred together 
and, to prevent the volatilization of zinc, are left on the fire 
for as short a time as possible. The mixtuie is poured out 
and allowed to get cold. The^copper is then melted, the 
cold alloy of silver and zinc added, and the whole intimately 
mixed by stirring. The alloy is then poured out, when 
cold cut into pieces, and the latter are remelted to obtain 
a perfectly homogeneous alloy, care being had, however, 
not to leave the alloy over the fire longer than absolutely 



47 2 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

necessary. The resulting alloy is hard, elastic, very ductile, 
and quickly melts in the furnace. 

Black bronze. Tin 5 parts, copper 83 parts, lead 10 parts, 
zinc 2 parts. Castings made of this alloy, when heated in a 
muffle after finishing, assume a dead black appearance. 

Sideraphite. The alloy known under this name resem- 
bles . silver, and is very ductile and malleable. It is com- 
posed of iron 63 parts, nickel 23, tungsten 4, aluminium 5, 
and copper 5. The iron and tungsten are melted together 
and then granulated by being thrown into water. The 
water used for this purpose should contain 1 lb. of slaked 
lime and 1 lb. of potash for every gallon. The nickel, 
copper and aluminium are also melted together, and the 
product thus obtained is also granulated in water contain- 
ing the same proportion of lime and potash. During melt- 
ing the metals in the two crucibles must be kept covered 
with a flux made of 2 parts each of borax and saltpeter. 
A piece of soda or alkali, weighing about the ttoo part of 
the whole mass, is to be put in the crucible containing the 
copper, nickel and aluminium to prevent oxidation of the 
last-named metal, and to prevent the same action taking 
place with the copper a small piece of charcoal is added. 
Previous to the operation of granulation the contents of the 
two crucibles should be well stirred. The granulated metals 
are dried, melted in the proportions given above, well 
shaken, and then run into bars. This alloy is claimed not 
to be more expensive than ordinary white metal. It will 
resist the action of sulphuric acid, is not attacked by 
organic acids, and but slightly so by the inorganic acids. 

Violet-colored alloy. An alloy of a beautiful violet color 
is obtained by melting together equal parts of antimony 
and copper. 

Gold-like alloy. This is a French alloy and in many re- 
spects very closely resembles gold, especially as regards 
color. It can be forged, welded, rolled, and pressed. It 
possesses the special advantage of its color not being at- 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 473 

tacked by ammoniacal salts and vapors containing nitric 
acid. It consists of copper 96 per cent, and antimony 4 
per cent. ' The two metals are melted together and to in- 
crease the density of the alloy, a small quantity of mag- 
nesium and of, calcium carbonate is added. 

Pyrophorous alloys for illuminating purposes. In the 
Auer von Welsbach works such metallic alloys have been 
prepared from rare earths with the addition of other metals, 
especially iron. An alloy consisting of about 50 per cent, 
lanthanium, 30 per cent, of other rare earths, such as neody- 
mium, praseodymium, cerium, and 20 per cent, iron, is very 
suitable for the production of light, and an alloy consisting 
of 60 per cent, cerium, 10 per cent, other rare earths and 
30 per cent, iron is particularly well adapted for the for- 
mation of sparks. 

Alloy for silvering. This alloy consists of tin 80 parts, 
lead 18, silver 2 ; or tin 90 parts, lead 9, silver 1. Melt the 
tin, and when the bath is lustrous white add the granulated 
lead and stir the mixture with a pine stick ; then add the 
silver and stir again. Increase the fire for a short time 
until the surface of the bath assumes a light yellow color, 
then stir thoroughly and cast the alloy into bars. The 
operation of silvering is executed as follows : 

The article, for instance a knife blade, is dipped in a solu- 
tion of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, rinsed in clean water, 
dried, rubbed with a piece of soft leather or dry sponge, 
and then exposed in a muffle five minutes to a temperature 
of 158 to 176 F. The effect of this treatment is to render 
the surface of the iron or steel porous. With iron not very 
good and coarsely porous the silvering process is difficult 
to execute. With steel, however, the process is easy ; the 
article heated to about 140 F. is dipped into the alloy 
melted in a crucible over a moderate fire. The bath, which 
must be completely liquid, is stirred with a pine or poplar 
stick. The surface of the bath should show a fine silver- 
white color. One or two minutes' dipping suffices for a 



474 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

knife blade. When taken from the bath the article is 
dipped into cold water, or, if necessary, hardened and 
tempered in the usual manner. It is then rubbed dry and 
polished without heating. 

Articles thus treated have the appearance of silver end 
also possess the sound of silver, and resist oxidation in the 
air. To protect them from the action of acid liquids they 
are first dipped in an amalgam bath of 69 parts of mercury, 
39 parts of tin, and one part of silver ; then, while hot, in 
melted silver, and electroplated with silver. This method 
of silvering is claimed to be very durable and not costly. 

Robertson alloy for filling teeth. — Gold 1 part, silver 3,. 
tin 2. First melt the gold and silver in a crucible, and at 
the moment of fusion add the tin. The alloy, when cold, 
may be finely pulverized. Equal quantities of the powder 
and mercury are kneaded together in the palm of the hand 
to form a paste for filling teeth. 

American sleigh-bells. — These bells, exceeding in beauty,, 
fine tone, and small specific gravity, are manufactured by 
fusing together 10 parts of nickel and 60 of copper. When 
this alloy has become cold, add 10 parts of zinc and two- 
fifths part of aluminium, fuse the mass and allow it to cool ; 
then remelt it with the addition of f part of mercury and 
60 parts of melted copper. 

Alloy for casting small articles. — Fuse a mixture of 79 per 
cent, of cast-iron, 19.50 of tin, and 1.50 of lead. This alloy 
has a beautiful appearance, fills the mould completely, and 
is therefore well adapted for casting small articles. It is 
malleable to a certain extent. 

Marlies noji-oxidizable alloy. — Iron 10 parts, nickel 35, 
brass 25, tin 20, zinc 10. Articles prepared from this alloy 
are heated to a white heat and dipped into a mixture of 
sulphuric acid 60 parts, nitric acid 10, hydrochloric acid 5,. 
and water 25. 

Alloy for sign-plates. — An excellent metal for engraving 
firm names, etc., upon plates which are to be attached to 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 475 

machines, etc., is prepared as follows : Mix ioo parts of pure 
melted copper in succession with 6 parts magnesium, 57 
parts sal ammoniac, 18 parts unslaked lime, and 9 parts 
cream of tartar, ail the ingredients to be in a finely pulver- 
ized state. Now, while stirring constantly, add 15 parts of 
zinc or tin in small pieces, and continue stirring until the 
whole is thoroughly melted and mixed. Allow the alloy to 
remain quietly on the fire for half an hour longer, remove 
the scum, and pour out the metal. This alloy has a golden 
color, a very fine grain, is ductile, and does not readily lose 
its color. 

Victor metal is whiter than German silver, which it can 
often replace, though less easy to work. It perfectly with- 
stands the effect of salt water and air, and is frequently 
utilized for marine engines. It is composed of copper 
49.94 per cent., zinc 34.27, nickel 15.40, aluminium 0.11, 
iron 0.28. 

Tempe7 r ed lead. — Lead 98.51 per cent., antimony 0.11, 
tin 0.08, sodium 1.3. It is manufactured by placing small 
fragments of sodium in the melted metal. This alloy is 
not so soft as lead, and can be rolled into thin sheets with- 
out tearing. When the percentage of sodium is rather 
large, tarnishing is prevented by coating the metal with 
paraffin. Thus formation of soda is prevented, owing to 
oxidation of the excess of sodium by atmospheric oxygen. 
For this reason it is valued for the manufacture of shaft 
bearings, because the soda formed, as the bearings wear 
away, saponifies the lubricant and produces a soap which 
acts even better than the oil. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 

Soldei-s in General. 

The so-called solders are alloys in the true sense of the 
word, but being used for special purposes will have to be 
separately described. Soldering is the process of uniting the 
edges or surfaces of metals by means of a more fusible metal 
which, being melted upon each surface, serves, partly by 
chemical attraction and partly by cohesive force, to bind 
them together. There is a great variety of solders known by 
the names of hard, soft, spelter, silver, white, gold, copper, 
tin, plumbers , and many others; they may, however, be 
broadly distinguished as hard solders and soft solders. The 
former fuse only at a red heat, and are therefore only suit- 
able for metals and alloys which will stand that temperature ; 
the soft solders fuse at a comparatively low temperature, and 
may consequently be used for nearly all metals. Nearly all 
the principal metals take part in the composition of solder. 
The metals to be united maybe either the same or dissimilar, 
but the uniting metal must always have an affinity for both, 
and should agree with them as nearly as possible in hardness 
and malleability. When this is the case, as when zinc sol- 
der is used to unite two pieces of brass or of copper, or one 
piece of each, or when lead or pewter is united with soft 
solder, the work may be bent or rolled almost as freely as 
if it had not been soldered. But when copper or brass is 
united by soft solder, the joint is very liable to be broken 
by accidental violence or the blow of a hammer. In all 
soldering processes the following conditions must be ob- 
served : i. The surfaces to be united must be bright, 

(476) 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 477 

smooth, and chemically clean. 2. The contact of air must 
be excluded during the soldering, because it is apt to 
oxidize one or other of the surfaces, and thus to prevent 
the formation of an alloy at the point of union. This latter 
object is effected by means of fluxes, which will be referred 
to later on. 

The process called autogenous soldering takes place by 
the fusion of the two edges of metals themselves without 
interposing another metallic alio}'- as a bond of union. The 
process is possible with the majority of metals and alloys, 
even the refractory ones, and though it does not actually 
belong here, the subject being alloys, it will be briefly 
described. The union of the metals is accomplished by 
directing a jet of burning, oxyhydrogen gas from a small 
movable beak upon the two surfaces or edges to be soldered 
together. Metals thus joined together are much less apt to 
crack asunder at the line of union by differences of tem- 
perature, flexibility, etc., than when the common soldering 
process is employed. This method of soldering is especially 
of great advantage in chemical works for joining the edges 
of sheet lead for sulphuric acid chambers and concentrating 
pans, because any solder containing tin would soon corrode. 

All soldered work should be kept under motionless re- 
straint for a period, as any movements of the parts during 
the transition of the solder from the fluid to the solid state 
disturbs its crystallization and the strict unity of the several 
parts. In hard soldering it is frequently necessary to bind 
the work together in their respective positions ; this is done 
with soft iron binding wire, which for delicate jewelry work 
is exceedingly fine, and for stronger work is ^V or t$ inch 
in diameter ; it is passed around the work in loops, the 
ends of which are twisted together with the pliers. 

In soft soldering the binding wire is scarcely ever used, 
as, from the moderate and local application of the heat, the 
hands may in general be freely used in retaining most of 
the work in position during the process. Thick work is. 



47§ THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

handled with pliers or tongs whilst being soft-soldered, 
and the two surfaces to be united are often treated much 
like glue joints, if we conceive the wood to be replaced by 
metal and the glue by solder, they being frequently coated 
or tinned whilst separated, and then rubbed together to 
distribute and exclude the greater part of the solder. 

Soft Solders. 

The soft solders serve chiefly for soldering tin-plate, 
sheet-zinc, and kitchen utensils of sheet-brass. Their melt- 
ing points lie between 284° and 464 F. For special pur- 
poses, the two previously mentioned alloys of cadmium 
and bismuth, with as low a melting point as 140 F., would 
be very suitable, but their costliness prevents their general 
use. 

Pure tin is the simplest of all soft solders, and is fre- 
quently used for soldering fine utensils of tin. Absolutely 
pure tin should, however, only be used, as the presence of 
foreign metals, especially that of iron, considerably increases 
the melting point. Tin solder is generally employed in the 
form of semi-cylindrical bars or very thin prisms. For 
soldering very delicate work tin-foil of very pure tin is 
frequently used. The surfaces being thoroughly cleansed, 
and, if necessary, nicely fitted together with a file, a piece 
of tin-foil is placed between them. They are then firmly 
bound together with binding wire and heated in the flame 
of a lamp or a Bunsen burner, or in the fire, until the tin 
melts and unites with both surfaces. Joints carefully made 
may be united in this way so neatly as to be invisible. 

The soft solder most frequently used consists of 2 parts 
of tin and 1 of lead. A cheaper solder is formed by in- 
creasing the proportion of lead ; 1^ tin to 1 lead is the 
most fusible solder, unless bismuth is added. The following 
table gives the composition of some of these solders with 
their points of fusion : — 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 



479 





Parts. 






Parts. 








Mel's at 
degrees F. 


No. 




Melts at 


No. 


, 








degrees F. 




Tin. 


Lead. 






Tin. 


Lead. 




i 


i 


25 


558° 


7 


iH 


i 


334° 


2 


i 


10 


541 


8 


2 


i 


340 


3 


i 


5 


en 


9 


3 


i 


355 


4 


i 


3 


4«2 


10 


4 


i 


3&5 


5 


i 


2 


441 


ii 


5 


I 


378 


6 


i 


1 


370 


12 


6 


I 


38i 



For ordinary plumber's work the solders from 4 to 8 are 
used with tallow as a flux. For lead and tin pipes No. 8 is 
used with a mixture of rosin and sweet-oil as a flux. For 
Britannia metal No. 8 is used with chloride of zinc or rosin 
as a flux. It can also be used for soldering cast-iron and 
steel, with common rosin or sal ammoniac as a flux. The 
same solder can also be used for copper and many of its 
alloys, such as brass, gun-metal, etc., sal ammoniac, chloride 
of zinc, or rosin being used as a flux. The solder No. 5 is 
what is called in England plumbers' sealed solder, which is 
assayed and stamped by an officer of the " Plumbers' Com- 
pany." 

The preparation of soft solder is very simple. The tin is 
first melted, a porcelain or stoneware vessel being best 
adapted for the purpose, as with the use of iron vessels 
there is danger of the absorption of iron by the solder. 
The tin being completely melted, the lead is added, and the 
two metals are thoroughly combined by stirring. The 
finished alloy is then poured into suitable moulds. 

Many manufacturers simply pour the finished solder in a 
fine stream upon a stone slab, and subsequently break the 
sheet thus obtained into small pieces. It is, however, 
recommended to cast the solder in moulds, as it is more 
handy for working in this shape, and besides its composi- 
tion can be better controlled. The most suitable shape is 
that of thin bars about 7^ by 1% inches and }& to % inch 
thick. 



480 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Experts judge the quality of a solder by the appearance 
of the surface of the cast pieces, and attach special value to 
its being radiated-crystalline, which is technically called the 
"flower" and should have a stronger luster than the dull 
ground of a dead silver color. If, as it sometimes happens, 
the solder shows a uniform gray-white color, it contains 
too little tin, and it is best to remelt it with an addition of 
a small quantity of tin. 

Bismuth solder is composed of bismuth 1 part, tin 1, and 
lead 1. It melts at 284 ° F. As will be seen from the com- 
position, it is more expensive than ordinary solder on 
account of the content of bismuth. It is, however, well 
adapted for certain purposes, as it is very thinly-fluid and 
considerably harder than ordinary solder. 

As previously mentioned every readily fusible metallic 
composition can be used for soldering, and consequently 
the fusible alloys of cadmium and of bismuth might be 
classed with the soft solders. They are, however, only 
used in exceptional cases on account of their costliness. 

Hard Solders. 

Under this name many different alloys are used, their 
composition depending principally on that of the metals or 
alloys to be soldered. Though hard solders are found in 
commerce, many large manufacturers prefer to make their 
own solders in order to have them entirely suitable for the 
purpose they are intended for. According to the metals 
or alloys for which they are to be used, hard solders may be 
divided into brass-solder for soldering brass, copper, etc., 
argentan-solder for German silver, gold and silver solders 
for gold and silver, etc., and this division will be retained 
here. 

Brass solder is the most fusible of all hard solders and is 
prepared according to various proportions. It is generally 
made by melting a good quality of brass together with a 
determined quality of pure zinc, or sometimes adding some 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 48.I 

tin to the mixture. Some solders are composed of brass 8 
parts, zinc i. A somewhat more refractory composition 
consists of brass 6 parts, zinc I, and tin I. And a still 
more refractory one of brass 6 parts, zinc i,tin i, copper i. 
The latter solder is the so-called hard brass-solder and is 
used for soldering iron and copper. In speaking of the 
respective alloys attention was drawn to the fact that with 
an increase in the content of tin the color of the brass 
passes from golden-yellow more and more into gray, and 
that the ductility .decreases at a corresponding rate. Varie- 
ties of brass very rich in tin are no longer ductile, but 
possess a considerable degree of brittleness. By adding 
tin to such compositions, their hardness and brittleness are 
still further increased, and mixtures are thus obtained, 
which, according to their peculiar color, are designated as 
yellozv, half-yellow or half-white, and white solder. 

Regarding the quantity of metals to be added to the 
brass, it has to be taken into consideration that solders 
containing much tin, though quite thinly-fluid, acquire such 
a degree of brittleness as to break in most cases on bend- 
ing at the soldered place. 

In making solders great care should be taken to secure 
uniformity of composition ; they are often found in com- 
merce in a granulated form or cast in ingots. The most 
suitable mode of their preparation is as follows : Perfectly 
homogeneous sheet-brass is used, it being preferable to 
cast brass, as by rolling it has acquired greater homogene- 
ousness. To prepare the brass for the manufacture of 
solders directly by melting together copper and zinc, is not 
advisable, as the unavoidable loss of zinc during the opera- 
tion can never be exactly determined. By using finished 
brass it can, however, be readily melted down and com- 
pounded, if necessary, with zinc, without any sensible volatili- 
zation of the latter. 

The brass is first melted in a crucible at as strong a heat 
as possible, and when thoroughly fused the entire quantity 
3i 



482 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of zinc to be used in the manufacture of the solder, and 
which has previously been highly heated, is added. The 
contents of the crucible are then vigorously stirred and 
after a few minutes poured out. The granulation of the 
solder is effected by pouring the melted metal from the 
crucible or ladle through a wet broom or from a consider- 
able height into cold water. The size of the grains thus 
obtained varies within wide limits, and in order to obtain 
a uniform product the grains have to be passed through 
different-sized sieves and all excessively large pieces re- 
melted. 

According to another method, the melted metal is poured 
into a shallow vessel filled with cold water in which lies a 
large cannon ball so as partially to project from the fluid. 
The metal falling in a fine stream upon the cannon ball flies 
into small pieces of nearly uniform size, which fall into the 
water, where they quickly harden. 

The finest and most beautiful product is, however, ob- 
tained in the following manner : At some distance above 
the level of the water serving for the collection of the 
grains, a horizontal pipe is arranged which is connected 
either with a powerful forcing pump or a water reservoir 
situated at a high level. Before pouring out the melted 
metal the cock on the pipe is opened so that the jet of 
water issuing from the pipe is thrown in a horizontal direc- 
tion over the vessel containing the water ; upon this jet of 
water the stream of melted metal is poured. The greater 
the force with which the water is hurled from the pipe the 
greater also the force with which the stream of melted 
metal is divided, and by this means it is possible, within 
certain limits, to obtain grains of a determined size. As 
will be seen from the above description the scattering of 
the stream of melted metal is based on the same principle 
as that employed in diffusing fragrant liquids in the air. 

Casting being finished, the grains of solder deposited on 
the bottom of the vessel are collected and quickly dried to 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 



483 



prevent them from becoming covered with a layer of oxide, 
which would exert a disturbing influence in soldering. 

The following table shows the composition of various 
kinds of solder which have stood a practical test for various 
purposes : — 



Very refractory 

Refractory 

Readily fusible 

Half-white, readily fusible. 

White 

Malleable solder 

Hard solder according to Volk 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


57-94 


42.06 


— 


58.33 


41.67 




50.00 


50.00 


— 


33-34 


66.66 


— 


44.00 


46.90 


3-30 


57-44 


27.98 


14.58 


72.00 


18.00 


4.00 


53-30 


46.70 


— 



Lead. 



percent. 



Since these solders, as previously mentioned, are gen- 
erally prepared by melting together brass and zinc, we give 
in the following table the proportions of brass (in sheet) 
and zinc required for the purpose. 



Very refractory 

Refractory 

Readily fusible. 
Half-white . . . . 
White '.'.'.'. 

Very ductile. . . 
For girdlers . . . 



Brass. 



Parts; 



85.42 

7.00 


12.58 
1. 00 


3-oo 


1. 00 


4.00 
5.00 


1. 00 
2.00 


5-oo 
12.00 


4.00 
5-oo 


44.00 
40.00 
22.00 


20.00 
2.00 
2.00 


18.00 
78.25 
81.12 


12.00 
17.25 
18.88 



Zinc. 



Tin. 



1. 00 
2.00 
8.00 
4.00 
30.00 



Zinc. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


43.10 


1.30 


c.30 


49.90 


3-30 


I. CO 


.27.98 


14.58 





484 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

PrechtV s brass-solders. 

Parts. 

Copper. 

Yellow, refractory 53-30 

Half-while, readily fusible . . . <4-C0 
White 57-44 

Brass-solders according to Karmarsh. 

Composition of the solder. 

Brass. Zinc. Copper. Zinc. 

Yellow, very refractory . 7 1 = 58.33 41.67 

" refractory 3 to 4 1 = 50.00 50.00 

" readily fusible.. 5 2 to 5 = 33.34 66.66 

Half-white 12 4 to 7 and 1 tin 

22 10 " 1 " 

White 20 1 " 4 " ' 

" 11 1 " 2 " 

" : 6 4 " 10 " 

Improved hard solder for brass. 

Per cent. 

Copper. Zinc. Silver. 

1. Fuses well 50 46 4 

2. Fuses readily 43 48 9 

3. Fuses rapidly 36 52 12 

These solders are said to be thoroughly reliable and 
though they are somewhat more expensive on account of 
their content of silver, time and fuel are saved with their 
use. For general use in workshops No. 2 can be recom- 
mended, it being suitable for brass of every kind and shape. 
No. 1 is intended for the first soldering, and No. 3 as a sub- 
stitute for all hard solders fusing quickly. 

Brass-solders containing lead are very rarely used at the 
present time, those containing besides copper, zinc, and 
perhaps a small quantity of tin, being generally preferred. 

Argentan-solder. — The metallic mixture to which this 
term is applied, not only. serves for soldering articles of 
argentan or German silver, but, on account of its refractory 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 485 

character and considerable toughness, is generally used for 
soldering articles where the joints are to be especially solid. 
It is very frequently employed for soldering fine articles of 
steel and iron. 

As regards its centesimal composition, argentan-solder 
is a variety of German silver especially rich in zinc, which 
must show considerable brittleness, so that it can be 
mechanically converted into a fine powder. The propor- 
tions according to which the solder is composed vary, and 
depend chiefly on the composition of the articles of German 
silver to be soldered with it. Manufacturers of German 
silver articles especially rich in nickel, and consequently 
more difficult to fuse, use, as a rule, a somewhat more re- 
fractory solder than those manufacturing alloys which con- 
tain but little nickel, and which are consequently more 
fusible. 

As argentan-solder is not only employed for soldering 
German silver, but also for articles of steel, efforts have 
been made to prepare compositions answering all demands, 
of which the following have stood a practical test : — 

a. Readily fusible argentan-solder. — Copper 35 parts, 
zinc 57, nickel 8. 

b. Less fusible argentan-solder (especially adapted for 
iron and steel). — Copper 38 parts, zinc 50, nickel 12. The 
alloys are melted in the same manner as German silver and 
cast in thin plates, which, while still hot, are broken into 
pieces and converted into as fine a powder as possible in an 
iron mortar previously heated. If the alloy is readily con- 
verted into powder, it contains too much zinc, or, if with 
difficulty, too little zinc. But in either case it does not 
possess the properties of argentan-solder of the proper pro- 
portions, and nothing is left but to remelt it. Hence it is 
recommended first to ascertain by small samples whether 
the alloy has the correct composition. For this purpose a 
small quantity of the melted metal is taken from the cruci- 
ble by means of a ladle and poured upon a cold stone, and 



486 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

then tested as to its behavior in the mortar. If it can be 
readily pulverized, it indicates an excess of zinc. 

This excess of zinc can be removed by keeping the alloy 
in flux for some time with the crucible uncovered, whereby 
a considerable quantity of zinc volatilizes, and, after con- 
tinuing the heating for some time, an alloy showing the 
required content of zinc is obtained. This method is, how- 
ever, expensive, as it consumes time and a considerable 
quantity of fuel. It is, therefore, more suitable to throw 
small pieces of strongly heated German silver into the 
melted alloy, and effect an intimate mixture of the metals 
by stirring with a wooden rod. 

If a sample of the alloy cannot be pulverized or broken 
into pieces by vigorous blows with a hammer, it is a sure 
proof that zinc is wanting. This defect can be more readily 
corrected than the preceding one, it being only necessary 
to throw a small quantity of zinc into the crucible and dis- 
tribute it as uniformly as possible in the melted mass. 
After repeating the addition of zinc and testing once, or at 
the utmost twice, a solder answering all requirements will 
be obtained. 

Argentan-solder has a pure, white color and strong 
luster. It melts at quite a high temperature and for this 
reason is well adapted for soldering, for instance, lamps 
used for the production of high temperatures (so-called 
Berzelius lamps) which were formerly much used in chem- 
ical laboratories, but which at present are generally re- 
placed by gas. 

Solders Containing Precious Metals. 

Solders containing precious metals — gold and silver — are 
chiefly used in the manufacture of gold and silver wares, 
but are also employed for soldering articles of cast-iron, 
copper, bronze, etc., and by manufacturers of fine mechan- 
ical works. Generally these solders consist of an alloy of 
silver and copper, or silver and brass, for silver-solder ; 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 487 

sometimes a small quantity of tin is added, which lowers 
the melting-point and gives a soft silver-solder. The com- 
position of silver solders varies according to the purpose 
for which they are to be used. In the following the com- 
pounds employed in the preparation of the solders most 
frequently used are given. 

Ordinary hard-silver- solder. — Copper I part, silver 4. 
This alloy is quite tenacious and very ductile. It is pre- 
ferably used for soldering articles to be worked under the 
hammer or to be stamped. 

Brass siiver-solder. — The alloy known under this name 
shows also considerable hardness and ductility, and has a 
somewhat lighter color than the preceding. It is prepared 
by melting together a fine quality of brass with silver, and 
is consequently an alloy of silver, copper and zinc. It is 
composed of sheet-brass 1 part and silver 1. 

Soft silver-solder. — The solders given above have a com- 
paratively high melting point. To facilitate the working 
of smaller articles, solders with lower melting points are 
used. This is attained by the addition of a small quantity 
of tin, which must, however, be very pure. An excellent 
soft silver-solder is composed of sheet-brass 32 parts, silver 
32, tin 2. 

Hard silver- solders: a. Very hard. — Silver 40 parts, cop- 
per 10. 

b. Hard. — Silver 40 parts, copper 2, brass 18. 

c. Middling hard. — Silver 40 parts, copper 10, brass 40, 
tin 10. 

Soft silver-solders: a. For after-soldering, i. e., for sol- 
dering articles that have parts already soldered, silver 20 
parts, brass 10. 

b. Quick running and brittle. — Silver 25 parts, brass 30, 
zinc 10. 

The last composition is frequently used for soldering 
silver-alloys with a very small content of silver. In con- 
sequence of the great brittleness of such solder, the sol- 
dered places readily spring open. 



483 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Silver solder for jewelry. — Silver 63.3 parts by weight, 
copper 3.4, brass 33.3. 

French silver solder. — This solder is used for soldering 
silver wares of the standard 950. Silver 66.6 parts by 
weight, copper 23.3, zinc 10. 

In making this solder it is recommended to previously 
alloy the zinc with twice its weight of copper, when the 
following proportions are used : Silver 66.8 parts by weight, 
brass 30, copper 3.3. 

Gee * recommends the following solders for special work: 



oz. dwt. gr. 

I. Fine silver 100 

Shot copper 5 



oz. dwt. gr. 
II. Fine silver •■• ■ 1 
Shot copper- • • 10 



10 



oz. dwt. gr. 

III. Fine silver o 16 o 

Shot copper o 12 

Ccmpcsiticn 3 12 







o 



oz. dwt. gr. 
IV. Fine silver- - - 1 
Composition - - ] 



Pure tin ...... o 







V. Fine silver- • •• 
Shot copper • • 
Pure speller -- 



VII. Fine silver •• 
Composition 
Arsenic 



oz. 
1 
o 





dwt. gr. 

o 
12 ' 

3 o 



IS 



o 



oz. dwt. gr. 

1 

o 6 o 

■ o 1 o 



1 7 

oz. dwt. gr. 

IX. Fine silver 100 

Tin o 10 

Arsenic o 5 



oz. dwt. gr. 

VI. Fine silver 100 

Shot copper- ■• 3 
Arsenic 2 o 



1 5 

oz. dwt. gr. 
VIII. Fine silver- • -• 100 
Composition • • 5 
Tin 5 



10 







X. Fine silver- 



oz. dwt. gr. 
1 



Composition-- 15 
Arsenic 1 



1 15 o 
*Gee Silversmith's Handbook. 



16 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 489 

The composition mentioned in the above formulas con- 
sists of a mixture of copper and zinc in the proportions of 
2 parts of copper to one part of zinc. It is preferable to 
employ this composition instead of brass, as the operator 
then knows of what the solder is composed, and if it should 
turn out bad he will partly know the cause, and be able to 
apply a remedy. 

Nos. I. and II. arc recommended for work to be 
enameled. No. III. easy solder for filigree work. No. IV. 
easy solder for chains. No. V. common easy solder. No. 
VII. easy silver solder. Nos. IX and X. common easy 
solders. 

Silver-solder for cast-iron. — Silver 20 parts, copper 30, 
zinc 10. 

Silver solder for steel. — Silver 30 parts, copper 10. 

Flux for hard-soldering used in Vienna. — This substance 
known as streu-borax (cprinkle-borax) is composed of cal- 
cined borax 87^ parts by weight, carbonate of coda J%, 
common salt 5. The ingredients are gently heated to 
expel the water of crystallization, and the whole is well 
pounded for use. 

For soldering articles of silver the alloy itself of which 
they are manufactured is in many cases used. But the 
manipulation is somewhat troublesome on account of the 
difficulty of keeping the places to be soldered clean, and 
the pieces must be very nicely fitted together. The solder, 
in this case, is used in the form of fine shavings and is 
melted by means of a keen flame. For small articles the 
flame of a blow-pipe suffices as a rule, but for larger articles 
it is best to use a special small blowing apparatus, by 
means of which the solder can be applied very uniformly. 
It offers the further advantage of leaving both hands free, 
which is of importance for turning the vessel in front of 
the flame and for the application of the solder. 

Gold-solders. — In color and fusibility the solders used for 
articles of gold should approach as nearly as possible the 



49° 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



alloys of which the article are made ; the smaller the content 
of gold in the alloy to be soldered, the more fusible the alloy 
used for soldering must be. Gold-solders consist in most 
cases of alloys containing, besides gold, copper and silver. 
By adding, as is sometimes done, small quantities of zinc, 
solders with a comparatively low melting point are ob- 
tained, the use of which has, however, the disadvantage of 
the soldered places frequently acquiring a black color dur- 
ing the subsequent coloring of the articles. 

Manufacturers use for articles of gold of various fineness 
solders which must correspond in regard to color and fusi- 
bility with the alloy to be soldered. The following table 
gives the composition of some gold-solders in general use : 



Parts. 



Hard solder for fineness 750. 

Soft " " " 750. 

Solder " " 583. 

" " 583. 

' ' for less fineness than 583 

" 583 

" 583 • 

' ' readily fusible 

" for yellow gold- • 



Gold. 



9.0 
12.0 
3-o 
2.0 
1.0 
1.0 

1.0 

11.94 

10. o 



Silver. 



2.0 
7-0 
2.0 

0-5 
2.0 
2.0 

54-74 
5-0 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


1.0 


_ 


3-0 


— 


1.0 


— 


• 0.5 


— 


1.0 


— 


2.0 





28.17 


S-Oi 


— 


1.0 



Solder for enameled work. — Articles which are being fin- 
ished and are to be decorated with enamel cannot be soldered 
with every kind of gold solder, since many enamels require 
so high a degree of heat for fusion as to endanger the dura- 
bility of the soldered joints. Hence solders with a high 
melting-point have to be used. The following composi- 
tions will be found to answer all requirements : — 

a. Refractory solder. — Gold 74 parts, silver 18. 

b. More readily fusible solder. — Gold (750 fineness) 32 
parts, silver 9, copper 3. 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 49I 

Fine gold solder. — For soldering platinum vessels to be 
used in laboratories chemically pure gold was formerly 
used, as alloys of gold and silver are attacked by sulphuric 
acid, etc., at a boiling heat and even below that tempera- 
ture. Soldering with fine gold is, however, very difficult, 
as gold requires a very high temperature to become fluid, 
and even then runs so thick as to require special skill for 
the production of a perfect joint. In modern times solder- 
ing with gold has been almost entirely abandoned, the 
pieces of platinum being now directly united with the assist- 
ance of the flame of oxyhydrogen gas. 

Aluminium gold-solder. — This solder is frequently used 
by dentists for joining together the separate metallic por- 
tions of sets of artificial teeth. Besides aluminium it gen- 
erally contains gold and silver, though in the place of the 
latter platinum and copper are now frequently used. In 
the following we give two receipts for preparing aluminium 
gold-solder : 

I. Gold 3 parts, platinum o.i, silver 2, aluminium 10. 

II. Gold 5 parts, silver 1, copper 1, aluminium 20. 
Alloys containing precious metals must, on account of 

their costliness, be brought into such shape that as little 
as possible be wasted in using them. In most cases they 
are cast into thin rods and rolled between steel roils into 
thin sheet, which is cut with the shears or pressed into thin 
strips, the so-called "pallions," or filed into dust, which is 
no doubt the best method of using them. 

Treatment of the various solders in soldering and 
soldering fluids, etc. 

Solders adhere only to bright and clean metal, and the 
surfaces of the plates to be soldered must consequently be 
subjected to a special treatment in order to remove any 
oxide, grease, etc. 

Many substances are in practice used for this purpose, 
the most important of which will be briefly discussed 



49 2 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

in the following : According to their behavior the chemical 
preparations used in soldering can be divided into ?ev«ral 
groups, namely, in those which produce a bright surface of 
the metals by dissolving the layer of oxide upon them. 

Dilate mineral acids are generally used for pickling the 
places to be soldered, hydrochloric (muriatic) acid being 
chiefly employed for the purpose. By touching the place 
where the solder is to be applied with a brush dipped in 
dilute hydrochloric acid, the oxide is at once dissolved and 
the melted solder spreads rapidly over the surface. Hydro- 
chloric acid is used upon zinc as well as upon tin. The 
combination formed by the solution of zinc in hydrochloric 
acid is, however, very volatile in the heat imparted to the 
metal by the soldering iron, and a considerable quantity of 
vapors injurious to the health and also to the metal of the 
soldering iron are evolved. It is, therefore, recommended 
to provide the workshop, where much of such soldering is 
done, with thorough ventilation. 

Instead of dilute hydrochloric acid, the so-called solder- 
ing fluid is used in many places. It is prepared by divid- 
ing a certain quantity of hydrochloric acid into two equal 
parts, compounding one of these parts with pieces of zinc 
and leaving it in contact with an excess of zinc until the de- 
velopment of gas has ceased. The other portion of hydro- 
chloric acid is compounded with carbonate of ammonia 
until no more effervescence due to the escape of carbonic 
acid takes place. The two liquids are then combined. In 
place of the saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia a 
solution of sal ammoniac in water can be used, equal vol- 
umes of the zinc solution and sal ammoniac being in this 
case taken for the preparation of the soldering fluid. 

For brass articles ammonia alone is frequently used, 
which acts by reducing the layer of oxide upon the surface 
of the metals. As fluxes for coarser work turpentine, 
colophony, and a mixture of sal ammoniac and olive oil 
are also used. 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 493 

The composition known under the name of "soldering 
fat" may be prepared by introducing powdered colophony in 
melted and strongly heated tallow and adding sal ammoniac. 
The mass is stirred until homogeneous and then allowed 
to solidify. 

For hard soldering, substances are used which dissolve 
the layer of oxide, and form with it a glass-like combina- 
tion which is melted by the heat and forced out by pressing 
the soldered pieces together. The best-known agent of 
this kind is borax, which readily dissolves the oxides in 
consequence of the excess of boric acid it contains. For 
higher degress of temperature, readily fusible glass finely 
pulverized also does good service, the fused glass dissolv- 
ing the Oxides. A solution of water-glass also answers the 
purpose, and is frequently used in hard soldering. 

Hard-soldering fluid. — The composition known under 
this name consists of a solution of phosphoric acid in alco- 
hol. It is prepared by dissolving phosphorus in nitric acid, 
evaporating the solution to expel any excess of nitric acid 
and mixing the syrupy mass with an equal quantity of 
strong, alcohol. The phosphoric acid dissolves the layer of 
oxide, the combination formed melting under the soldering 
iron, and is displaced by the melted solder which now 
comes in contact with the bright metallic surface. The 
hard-soldering fluid can be advantageously used in solder- 
ing copper, as well as brass, bronze and argentan. The 
phosphate of ammonia or of soda is also used in soldering 
copper. 

Still more suitable as a flux in hard soldering is the use 
of quartz-sand and some decomposed soda. Quartz-sand 
consists of silicic acid and soda or sodium carbonate. Both 
these substances on coming together in a strong heat com- 
bine to sodium silicate, which, if silicic acid be present in 
excess, dissolves the oxides. For very high temperatures, 
as for instance in welding iron, the use of pure quartz-sand 
by itself suffices. By strewing the sand upon the red-hot 



494 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

iron, placing the other piece of iron also red hot upon it, 
and uniting both by vigorous blows of the hammer, the 
combination of the silicic acid with the ferric oxide formed 
upon the surfaces of the pieces of the metal is pressed out 
in a fluid form, and the two surfaces of iron having become 
bright will unite. 

In soldering copper and brass, or similar metals, with 
soft solder, many workmen use the soldering iron ex- 
clusively, whilst in many cases a better joint may be made 
by carefully filing the places to be soldered, so that they fit 
accurately one upon the other, applying soldering fluid to 
them, and laying a piece of thin tin-foil between them. 
The parts are then bound together with wire and held over 
the lamp until the tin-foil is melted. Solders 19 and 21 in 
the annexed table may be recommended for this purpose. 
The fusing points given in the table may be of advantage 
to the workman in case the same piece of work requires 
several soldering joints. If, for instance, a joint has been 
soldered with tin-solder No. 5, an adjoining joint may, 
without hesitation, be soldered with solder No. 16, the 
melting points of these two solders being far apart. 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 



497 



soldered, if previously the lower part A of the shirt button 
was fastened between the screws (see Fig. 43). 

In Fig 1 . 43 the pan is shown in cross section, to indicate 
how it is to be used in case a ring with jewel is to be 
soldered. This is to be 

fastened as deeply as pos- FlG- 43< 

sible between the screws, 
and the pan is then filled to 
a proper height with sand. 
Above is placed a layer, O, 
of small pieces of coal or 

asbestos, and soldering may then be commenced without 
danger to the jewel. 
32 




CHAPTER XXII. 

DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC 
ALLOYS, OF THE IMPURITIES OF THE TECHNI- 
CALLY MOST IMPORTANT METALS, ETC. 

Since most metals dissolve in nitric acid, pour over the 
sample in a glass flask chemically pure nitric acid and assist 
solution by careful heating over a spirit flame.- 

1. Gold and platinum dissolve only in aqua-regia ; tin 
and antimony are only oxidized by nitric acid. Hence if 
an undissolved residue of the sample remains, it indicates 
gold, platinum or antimony (or carbon with cast-iron). 
Filter the residue, which may be termed A, from the solu- 
tion and treat it further as given under 15. 

2. Dilute a sample of the filtrate (or, if filtration be not 
necessary, a sample of the solution) in a test-glass with dis- 
tilled water. If turbidity or a white precipitate appears it 
indicates bismuth, which has been precipitated as basic salt 
from the solution by water. The non-appearance of this 
reaction, however, is not conclusive proof of the absence of 
bismuth, since an excess of nitric acid prevents the precipi- 
tation of basic bismuth nitrate. To be certain, first evap- 
orate the sample to drive off the acid and then dilute with 
water. 

3. Another sample of the solution is mixed with dilute 
sulphuric acid. If a white, granular precipitate is formed, 
the sample of metal contains lead, because only sulphates 
of lead are insoluble in acids. 

4. If, on mixing a portion of the original solution, or in 
case the test for lead was successful, a portion of the filtrate 
free from lead, with pure hydrochloric acid, a white caseous 

(498) 



•CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 499 

precipitate is formed if the metallic sample contains silver 
or mercury. In case test No. 3 has not been previously 
executed, a precipitate of chloride of lead may take place if 
lead is present. For the further treatment of this precipi- 
tate, which may be termed B, see under 14. 

5. Add to a small sample of the solution in nitric acid a 
few drops of caustic ammonia. If the solution acquires a 
fine blue color, the sample of metal contains copper. 

6. To test for mercury, evaporate a few drops of the 
solution in nitric acid to expel the acid, and dilute with 
water. If a copper wire placed in the aqueous solution 
turns gray and becomes white with a metallic luster on 
rubbing with the finger, the presence of mercury is shown. 

7. Next conduct into a somewhat larger sample of the 
solution sulphuretted hydrogen and compound it with 
water containing sulphuretted hydrogen. All metals men- 
tioned in 1 to 6 are precipitated as metallic sulphides. 
Hence, a precipitate, which may be termed C, will gener- 
ally be obtained. This precipitate is filtered off, thoroughly 
washed with water containing sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
further tested for cadmium as given under 16. Since sul- 
phuretted hydrogen is frequently used, it being a reagent 
of great value to the chemist, a simple and cheap apparatus, 
so that a supply may at any time be had, may be made as 
follows : Cut off the bottom of a long glass-bottle* of small 
diameter, D, say about two inches, and fit it into a fruit jar 
E, as in Fig. 44. 

The top A should be fitted loosely, so that it may be 
removed to let air pass through. The cork at B must be 
air-tight. Fit a small tube into the cork after bending it 
in a spirit-lamp flame — a quarter-inch tube with an eighth- 

*Cut a nick, with a large file, in the spot where you wish to start a crack 
near the bottom, then heat a rod or poker nearly red hot, place it on the 
nick; a crack starts; draw your hot iron and the crack will follow; when 
nearly cracked around, pull the bottom off. A glass chimney maybe used, 
but it is rather too small to contain sufficient iron sulphide. 



5oo 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 




inch aperture is sufficiently large and is easily bent. Take an 

inch rod of iron, let the blacksmith 
heat it white hot and press it 
into a small roll of brimstone; 
this will give you iron sulphide 
— you need it in pieces as large 
as bullets ; it melts readily 
against the brimstone. Place 
some cotton in the neck of the 
bottle, and, having fitted a plug 
of wood with holes in it for 
the bottom of the bottle, in- 
vert the bottle and fill it half full of iron sulphide lumps, 
fasten the wooden plug in the bottom, not very tightly, but 
tightly in three or four places, so that water can pass 
freely, and yet the plug be well fixed in. Put the bottle in 
its place, resting in the jar at A, and somewhat loosely 
fastened. But this must be after you have half filled the 
jar with a mixture of equal parts common hydrochloric 
acid and rain water. Sulphuretted hydrogen will form 
immediately, and if you have made all connections perfectly 
as in the figure, the gas will pass from this apparatus into 
the sample of the solution in the beaker, and precipitation 
will soon take place. The advantage of this apparatus is, 
that if you tie two little blocks of wood against the side of 
the rubber tubes C C, so as to press the sides together 
and stop the gas from flowing, the gas forming pushes the 
water out of the interior glass D, and the gas stops form- 
ing, but is ready at any moment to begin as soon as the 
string around the blocks is removed. 

8. Neutralize the filtrate from the previous experiment 
and mix it with ammonium sulphide. The precipitate 
formed, which may be termed D, is washed out with water, 
containing ammonium sulphide and tested according to 10. 
Magnesium may also be contained in the filtrate. 

9. To determine ?nag?iesium evaporate a small quantity of 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 5OI 

the filtrate obtained in 8, and add some sodium phosphate 
and ammonia. If the solution contains magnesium, a 
crystalline precipitate of ammonium-magnesium phosphate 
is formed, which is insoluble in ammoniacal water. 

10. Pour dilute hydrochloric acid over the precipitate D 
(from 8). If a black residue — consisting of sulphides of 
nickel and cobalt — which may be termed E, is formed, it is 
filtered off and further tested according to n. Boil the 
filtrate until the sulphuretted hydrogen is completely driven 
off, then compound it with nitric acid, boil again, and 
evaporate. Now compound with strong alkaline lye in 
excess, boil and filter. The precipitate, which may be 
termed F, is analyzed according to 12. The filtrate may 
contain zinc or alumina. Both are determined according 
to 13. 

11. The residue is (from 10) is dissolved in hydrochloric 
acid, a few drops of nitric acid are added and the solution 
is evaporated nearly to dryness. By adding some sodium 
nitrate and acetic acid, and after standing for some time in 
the heat, a yellow precipitate is formed if cobalt be present. 
After 12 hours filter off and compound the filtrate with 
caustic soda. Nickel is present when a greenish precipitate 
is formed, which does not completely dissolve in the excess 
of the precipitating agent. 

12. A portion of the precipitate F (from 10) is dissolved 
in hydrochloric acid and a sample of it tested : 

a. With potassium ferrocyanide for iron. 

b. Melt another sample with potassium carbonate and 
potassium chlorate, and boil the melted mass with water. 
If chromium was present it has been converted into chromic 
acid (yellow solution), and can be readily recognized by 
compounding the solution with sugar of lead. If chromium 
is not found, a portion of the sample is tested with the 
blow-pipe for manganese. 

c. If chromium was found a portion of the hydrochloric 
acid solution is neutralized with potassium carbonate, com- 



502 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

pounded with caustic soda in excess, and the precipitate 
tested for manganese and the nitrate for zinc, according 
to 13. 

13. Moisten the solution to be tested for manganese 
upon a platinum- sheet with some soda and a trace of salt- 
peter, and let the flame of the blow-pipe act upon it. If 
the solution contains manganese a green paste is obtained, 
which on cooling turns blue-green. The filtrate from 10 
may contain zinc or alumina. Compound a portion of it 
with sulphuretted hydrogen; a white precipitate (sulphate 
of zinc) indicates zinc. Acidulate another portion with 
hydrochloric acid, add ammonia in slight excess and warm. 
Alumina, if contained in the solution, is precipitated as 
aluminium hydrate. 

14. The white precipitate B (from 4) may contain chloride 
of silver, chloride of lead, or subchloride of mercury. Treat 
it with much water, whereby chloride of lead is dissolved ; 
the lead may then be determined as in 3, with sulphuric 
acid. Treat the residue with ammonia. If complete solu- 
tion takes place, the residue consists of chloride of silver,, 
and from the solution the silver is again precipitated as 
chloride of silver by nitric acid. A black residue, insoluble 
in water and ammonia, consists of chlorine and mercury, 
(subchloride of mercury). 

15. The residue which remained by dissolving in nitric 
acid is warmed in aqua-regia. If a white insoluble powder 
is separated it generally consists of chloride of silver, more 
rarely of chloride of lead. Though silver and lead by them- 
selves are soluble in nitric acid, by alloying with the more 
noble metals they are frequently protected from solution,, 
and may be contained in the residue. They are determined 
according to 14. A portion of the solution is now mixed 
with ferrous sulphate solution. A fine brownish separation 
consists of metallic gold. A yellow precipitate produced by 
sal ammoniac establishes the presence of piatimim. 

If the residue A consists of a white powder it is washed 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 503 

with water and boiled in a flask with tartaric acid. If it is 
soluble it consists of oxide of antimony; if insoluble it con- 
tains tin. 

16. The precipitate C (from 7) obtained with sulphuretted 
hydrogen contains a number of metallic sulphides, a portion 
of which — antimony, arsenic, tin, gold, platinum — is dis- 
solved by ammonium sulphide. The residue is boiled with 
dilute nitric acid and dissolves thereby, separating flaky 
sulphur, which floats upon the solution. If a portion re- 
mains undissolved it consists of oxide of mercury. From 
the filtered solution separate the lead by means of sulphuric 
acid (see 3), and after settling, filter, and mix with am- 
monia. A precipitate indicates bismuth; a blue coloration 
copper. Evaporate the solution completely, add some 
acetic acid and water, and precipitate the copper with sul- 
phuretted hydrogen. Cadmium, if present, is precipitated 
as sulphide of cadmium, and hence the precipitate has to be 
treated with boiling sulphuric acid. The sulphide of cad- 
mium is dissolved, while sulphide of copper remains undis- 
solved. If the alloy contains cadmium yellow sulphide of 
cadmium is precipitated from the filtrate by sulphuretted 
hydrogen. 

17. Some alloys contain arsenic, it being also found as an 
impurity in many metals. To complete the analysis, a test 
for arsenic must therefore be made. Marsh's apparatus is 
used for this purpose. It consists of a flask a (Fig. 45), in 
which hydrogen gas is developed from chemically pure zinc 
and dilute pure sulphuric acid. The tube c ends in a wide 
glass tube d, which is filled with calcium chloride for dry- 
ing the gas. The gas escapes through the smaller tube e, 
running to a point at /. If now through the funnel b a few 
drops of the metallic solution are brought into the appara- 
tus, the flame of hydrogen will acquire a blue coloration if 
the solution contains arsenic, and a white smoke of arseni- 
ous acid will rise from it. The arsenietted hydrogen formed 
is very poisonous, a few bubbles of it being sufficient to 



5°4 



THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 



cause death. If a piece of glass or porcelain is depressed 
upon the flame it will acquire a metallic mirror of arsenic. 
The metallic mirror, however, is not an infallible test, since 
antimony produces the same phenomenon. To ascertain 

Fig. 45. 




whether arsenic or antimony has to be sought for in the 
metal, drop a little solution of calcium chloride upon the 
metallic mirror; arsenic is immediately dissolved, while 
antimony remains unchanged. 

Testing brass. — Evaporate the alloy with nitric acid to 
dryness, take up with a few drops of nitric acid and with 
water, filter the residue {oxide of tin, with or without 
oxide of antimony), precipitate from the filtrate lead with 
sulphuric acid, from the filtrate of sulphate of lead copper 
with sulphuretted hydrogen, from the oxidized filtrate any 
iron present by ammonia and ammonium chloride, and 
from another portion of the filtrate by potash lye man- 
ganese to be tested with saltpetre and soda. For estab- 
lishing a content of antimony in the separated oxide of 
zinc dissolve the latter in as little hydrochloric acid as pos- 
sible, bring the fluid upon a platinum sheet and a small 
piece of zinc, whereby, if antimony is present, a dark-brown 
to black stain is formed. In the absence of tin and in the 
presence of small quantities of antimony in solution, super- 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 505 

saturate the solution in nitric acid with potash lye, heat 
with solution of potassium bisulphide, filter, and precipitate 
from the filtrate with hydrochloric acid sulphide of anti- 
mony as well as sulphide of arsenic ; dissolve the precipi- 
tate in fuming hydrochloric acid and test upon a platinum 
sheet with zinc for antimony. Dissolve the residue (sul- 
phide of arsenic), insoluble in the acid, in a little hydro- 
chloric acid and potassium chlorate, heat until the odor of 
chlorine disappears, and test for arsenic in Marsh's appara- 
tus, Fig. 45. A content of bismuth may be detected by 
dissolving a larger quantity of alloy in as little dilute hydro- 
chloric acid of 1. 12 specific gravity as possible, heating 
carefully, filtering off separated oxide of tin, precipitating 
bismuth from the filtrate with ammonia, dissolving the pre- 
cipitate in greatly dilute hydrochloric acid and allowing the 
solution to fall drop by drop into a large quantity of water, 
whereby a white turbidity appears. 

Testing Britannia metal. Good qualities of Britannia 
metal, which can be rolled, contain 90 to 93 per cent, tin, 
and, at the utmost, 10 per cent, antimony and o to 3 per 
cent, copper, while inferior qualities contain less than 85 per 
cent. tin. Hence, the principal point would be the deter- 
mination of the content of tin. For the purpose of testing 
whether, besides tin and antimony, other metals are present, 
oxidize with nitric acid, supersaturate with ammonia, add 
ammonium sulphide and heat. If the resulting solution is 
not clear, other metals are present. 

Testing bronze. Decompose the bronze with nitric acid, 
evaporate to dryness, heat the residue with water, filter off 
the stannic acid, separate from the filtrate lead by means of 
alcohol and sulphuric acid, and from the filtrate thereof 
copper by means of sulphuretted hydrogen ; filter, add to 
the filtrate, freed from sulphuretted hydrogen by heating, 
some potassium chlorate, precipitate iron with ammonia in 
excess, and from filtrate, supersaturated with acetic acid, 
zinc with sulphuretted hydrogen ; supersaturate the filtrate 



506 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

thereof with ammonia and precipitate manganese with am- 
monium sulphate. A test for arsenic may be made in 
Marsh's apparatus by dissolving a sample in hydrochloric 
acid, with addition of potassium chlorate and heating the 
fluid to be tested until the chlorine odor disappears. A 
very sensitive test, according to Gutzeit, is as follows : Pour 
over zinc in a test-tube hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, add 
the solution to be tested for arsenic, close the mouth of the 
tube with a cotton stopper, place filtering paper over the 
latter and bring upon the center of the paper a drop of a 
solution of nitrate of silver in equal parts of water. In the 
presence of arsenic the moistened place acquires, first be- 
low and then on top, a lemon-yellow color, a brown-black 
ring being at the same time formed on the periphery, 
which gradually extends towards the center and finally dis- 
perses the yellow coloration. In the presence of much 
arsenic the yellow coloration is only transitory. Antimony 
gives only a dark brown-red ring on the periphery, w 7 hile 
in the presence of much antimony the interior space of the 
ring appears gray-white. To detect phosphorus precipitate 
from the solution in aqua-regia, copper and tin with 
sulphuretted hydrogen, supersaturate the filtrate with 
ammonia, precipitate iron, zinc and manganese with am- 
monium sulphate, and from the filtrate thereof, ammonium- 
magnesium phosphate with ammonium chloride, magnesium 
chloride and ammonia. 

Testing German silver. — The quality of German silver 
being dependent on the content of nickel, is recognized by 
its color, a yellowish coloration indicating an inferior pro- 
duct. A content of arsenic is detected by dissolving a. 
sample of the alloy in nitric acid, evaporating with sul- 
phuric acid until the nitric acid is expelled, diluting with 
water and testing in Marsh's apparatus, Fig. 45, or accord- 
ing to Gutzeit's method given above. 

To test gold-ware. — When a sample of the alloy cannot 
be taken for a chemical test, the touchstone forms a con- 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 507 

venient means of examination. It consists of a species of 
black basalt obtained chiefly from Silesia. If a piece of 
gold be drawn across its surface a golden streak is left 
which is not affected by moistening with nitric acid, whilst 
the streak left by brass or any similar base alloy would be 
rapidly dissolved. Experience enables an operator to de- 
termine by means of the touchstone nearly the amount of 
gold present in the alloy, comparison being made with the 
streaks left by alloys of known composition. 

Resistance of a few metals and alloys to calcium hy- 
drate. — Filings and turnings of the metals to be examined 
in quantities of yj grains, were left, at a normal tempera- 
ture to the action of milk of lime with 4 per cent, hydrate 
for 14 days; they were then separated from the lime solu- 
tions by washing until phenolphthaleine showed no longer 
a red coloration, dried and weighed. The results were as 
follows : 

1. '"Saxonia" pure soft lead: loss of weight, 0.81 1 per 
cent. The metal was considerably attacked. 

2. Antimony regulus : the metal remained entirely un- 
changed. 

3. Lead pipe (with 25 per cent, slag lead): loss of weight, 
0.299 per cent.; considerably attacked. 

4. Lead plate (12 per cent, slag lead) : loss of weight, 
0.658 per cent.; considerably attacked. 

5. Pure cast iron : increase in weight, 0.014 per cent.; 
very much corroded. 

6. Brass : loss of weight, 0.686 per cent.; considerably 
attacked. 

7. Phosphor-bronze : no alteration. 

8. Pure tin : loss of weight, 0.122 per cent.; the metal was 
but little attacked. 

From these results it may safely be concluded that for 
pumps intended for the conveyance of milk of lime, phos- 
phor bronze or an alloy of tin and antimony is most suita- 
ble. 



508 THE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

To distinguish tin-foil from lead-foil. — Treat the foil 
with concentrated sulphuric acid; tin is dissolved, while 
lead remains undissolved. 

To test mercury as to its purity. — Pour nitric acid over 
a drop of mercury in a dish. If pure, the mercury moves 
for a moment and then remains quiet and motionless. If 
it contains foreign metals it commences at once a vigorous 
circular motion, which is kept up until the mercury is com- 
pletely dissolved. 

Tin is generally tested as to its purity by breaking it, 
whereby it gives out a single, crackling sound (the cry of 
tin). To recognize the nature of impurities dissolve a 
sample in aqua-regia ; arsenic and antimony are detected by 
Marsh's apparatus (see p. 503). Mix another portion of 
the solution with potassium ferrocyanide ; a white precipi- 
tate indicates the purity of the tin ; a blue precipitate gen- 
erally the presence of iron, and a red-brown precipitate 
that of copper. Lead may be detected by the addition of 
sulphuric acid or Glauber's salt. 

Soft solders are tested in the same manner. They should 
contain only tin and lead. Some soft solders contain bis- 
muth, which is detected by diluting the solution (see under 
2, p. 498). 

To detect lead in tin. — Make a solution of potassium 
bichromate in water. Next apply some acetic acid to the 
tin to be tested, which will produce a whitish coating. 
Then apply some of the potassium bichromate solution, 
and if the whitish coating turns yellow the tin contains 
lead, and the more the yellower the coating becomes. 

White metals should always be tested with Marsh's appa- 
ratus, Fig. 45. If the metallic mirror is only partially dis- 
solved by chloride of lime, the sample contains arsenic and 
antimony . The other constituents are found in the manner 
already stated. 

Nickel has only to be tested for copper, iron and cobalt. 
The manner of determining copper has been given under 5, 



CONSTITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 509 

p. 499. Iron can be recognized by its reaction with potas- 
sium ferro-cyanide. To determine the presence of cobalt, 
dissolve the metal in hydrochloric acid, dilute the solution 
with water, and write with a clean goose-quill upon a strip 
of white paper. After drying heat the writing ; if it appears 
emerald-green to blue-green the solution contains cobalt. 
For other methods see under n, p. 501. 



APPENDIX. 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 

In many cases alloys are provided with a coating, the 
object being either to increase their beauty or to protect 
them from oxidation and discoloration. Articles of ordin- 
ary alloys, which are not to be exposed to the fire, are fre- 
quently only provided with a coating of lacquer consisting 
usually of a solution of shellac in alcohol, that made with 
" stick lac " being as a rule, the best. The lacquer may be 
colored by any permanent transparent alcoholic solution 
giving the desired tint. Dragon's blood, red sanders, or 
annotto is generally used for red, and gamboge, sandarac, 
saffron, turmeric, or aloes for yellow; these coloring matters 
may be replaced by aniline colors. In applying the lacquer 
care should be had to keep the article to be lacquered 
warm and of uniform temperature, and to perform the work 
as quickly and smoothly as possible. Keep the lacquers in 
well-stoppered bottles, best of opaque material. For use 
pour them into dishes of convenient size, and apply them 
with a thin, wide, flat brush. The following is Graham's *• 
table of lacquers : — 

* Brass-Founder's Manual, London, 1887. 
(5IO) 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 



511 



u 

0) 

.£3 

B 

3 

2 



n 




a 

"t5 
.a 
a 
•a 
01 
C 

U 


V 

a 
'% 
"o 

"C 
'E 
in 


u 

01 



<u 

6 
t-< 
>, 

Ph 


a 

V 

ft 
3 

O 

'5, 
en 


'a 

u 

a 

> 

a 
c 

V 

a 
u 

3 

H 


1^ 
<u 

3 

a 1 

u 
a 

u 

a 

D 
"ft 
g 

en 


T3 



_o 

3 

"a 


M 
ns 
I* 

P 


6 


c 

< 


U 

S3 


s- 

u 
3 


u 
O 

.0 

s 

nl 


c 


u 

IB 
« 
en 


V 

_o 

<d 
a 
a 
U 


rt 
u 
« 

•a 
C 
a 

en 




1 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
IS 
t6 
17 
18 
19 


oz. 
4 
I 
I 
I 
I 

2 
2 

s 

3 

3 
1 
3 
3 
3 

1 


dr. 

30 


dr. 

30 


pt. 

2 
2 

3 

4 

I 
6 


oz. 

30 

- 


dr. 
30 


oz. 

6 

1 


Pt. 

1 

1 
1 


dr. 

1 
1 

40 

8 
8 
20 


dr. 

1 
8 

1 

32 
24 


gr. 

12 


dr. 

1 
32 

4 
16 

64 

10 

60 

4 


dr. 

1 
16 

6 

1 


dr. 

2 

4 

10 


dr. 
2 


dr. 

8 
8 

14 

S 

27 


Strong simple. 
Simple pale. 
Fine pale. 

Plate gold. 
Pale yellow. 

Full yellow. 
Gold. 

Deep gold. 

Red. 

Tin lacquer. 

Green, for 

bronze. 



By coating articles of copper or brass with good fat 
copal lacquer, and heating after drying until the lacquer 
commences to smoke, a coat is obtained which protects the 
articles as well as the tinning against the action of acid 
liquids. 

Articles of copper and bronze exposed for a long time to 
the action of the air acquire a beautiful brown or green 
color, which considerably contributes to their handsome 
appearance. This color is known as Aerugo nobilis (noble 
rust) or patina. 

Though there are many agents by means of which a 
layer of patina can be produced upon the bronze, the coat- 
ing thus obtained cannot compare, as regards beauty and 
durability, with the genuine patina. 

In order to obtain a coating similar to genuine patina 
(see p. 260) upon objects of copper and of bronze and 
brass, they are repeatedly brushed with solution of sal 
ammoniac in vinegar; the efficiency of the solution is ac- 
celerated by the addition of verdigris. A still better effect 



512 APPENDIX. 

is produced by a solution of 9 drachms of sal ammoniac 
and 2.% drachms of potassium binoxadate (salt of sorrel) 
in 1 quart of vinegar. When the first coating is dry, wash 
the article and repeat the manipulations, drying and wash- 
ing after each application, until a green patina is formed. 
It is best to bring the articles after, being brushed over 
with the solution into a hermetically closed box, upon the 
bottom of which a few shallow dishes containing very 
dilute sulphuric or acetic acid and a few pieces of marble 
are placed. Carbonic acid being thereby evolved, and the 
air in the box being kept sufficiently moist by the evapora- 
tion of water, the natural conditions under which genuine 
patina is formed are produced. If the patina is to show a 
more bluish tone, brush the objects with a solution of 4^ 
ozs. of ammonium carbonate and 1 ~% ozs. sal ammoniac in 
1 quart of water, to which a small quantity of gum traga- 
canth may be added. 

All shades from the pale-red of copper to a dark chestnut 
brown can be produced from copper by superficial oxida- 
tion. For small objects it suffices to heat them uniformly 
over an alcohol flame. With large objects a more uniform 
result is obtained by heating them in oxidizing fluids or 
brushing them over with an oxidizing paste, the best results 
being obtained by the application of a paste prepared, ac- 
cording to the darker or lighter shades desired, from 2 
parts ferric oxide and 1 part black lead, or 1 part each of 
ferric oxide and black lead, with alcohol or water. Apply 
the paste as uniformly as possible with a brush, and place 
the objects in a warm place (oven or drying chamber). 
The darker the color is to be the higher the temperature 
must be and the longer it must act upon the objects. When 
sufficiently heated the dry powder is removed by brushing 
with a soft brush, and the manipulation repeated if the ob- 
ject does not show a sufficiently dark tone. Finally, the 
object is rubbed with a soft linen rag moistened with 
alcohol, or brushed with a soft brush and a few drops of 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 



513 



alcohol until completely dry, and then with a brush previ- 
ously rubbed upon pure wax. The more or less dark shade 
produced in this manner is very warm and resists the action 
of the air. 

Brown color upon copper. — Apply to the thoroughly 
cleansed surface of the object a paste of verdigris 3 parts, 
ferric oxide 3, sal ammoniac 1, and sufficient vinegar, and 
heat until the applied mixture turns black. The object is 
then washed and dried. By the addition of some blue 
vitriol the color may be darkened to chestnut brown. 

In England a brown layer of cuprous oxide upon copper 
articles is produced as follows : After polishing the articles 
with pumice powder apply with a brush a paste of 4 parts 
of verdigris, 4 parts of colcothar (ferric oxide), 1 part of 
finely rasped horn shavings and a small quantity of vinegar. 
Dry, heat over a coal fire, wash, and smooth with the 
polishing stone. 

A brown color is also obtained by brushing to dryness 
with a hot solution of 1 part of potassium nitrate, 1 of com- 
mon salt, 2 of ammonium chloride, and 1 of liquid ammonia 
in 95 of vinegar. A warmer tone is, however, produced by 
the method introduced in the Paris Mint, which is as fol- 
lows : Powder and mix intimately equal parts of verdigris 
and sal ammoniac. Take a heaping tablespoonful of this 
mixture and boil it with water in a copper kettle for about 
twenty minutes and then pour off the clear fluid. To give 
copper objects a bronze-like color with this fluid, pour part 
of it into a copper pan ; place the objects separately in it 
upon pieces of wood or glass, so that they do not touch 
each other, or come in contact with the copper pan, and 
then boil them in the liquid for a quarter of an hour. Then 
take the objects from the solution, rub them dry with a 
linen cloth, and brush them with a waxed brush. 

A red-brown color on copper is produced in China by the 
application of a paste of verdigris 2 parts, cinnabar 2, sal 
ammoniac 5, and alum 5, with sufficient vinegar, heating 
over a coal fire, washing, and repeating the process. 
53 



514 APPENDIX. 

According to Manduit, copper and coppered articles may 
be bronzed by brushing with a mixture of castor oil 20 
parts, alcohol 80, soft soap 40, and water 40. This mixture 
produces tones from bronze Barbedienne to antique green 
patina, according to the duration of the action. After 24 
hours the article treated shows a beautiful bronze, but 
when the mixture is allowed to act for a greater length of 
time the tone is changed and several different shades of 
great beauty are obtained. After rinsing, dry in hot saw- 
dust, and lacquer with colorless spirit lacquer. 

Copper is colored blue-black by dipping the object in a 
hot solution of nj^ drachms of liver of sulphur in a quart 
of water, moving it constantly. Blue-gray shades are ob- 
tained with more dilute solutions. It is difficult to give 
definite directions as to the length of time the solution 
should be allowed to act, since this depends on its tempera- 
ture and concentration. With some experience the correct 
treatment, however, will soon be learned. 

The so-called cuivre fume' is produced by coloring the 
copper or coppered objects blue-black with solution of 
liver of sulphur, then rinsing, and finally scratch-brushing 
them, whereby the shade becomes somewhat lighter. 
From raised portions which are not to be dark, but are to 
show the color of copper, the coloration is removed by 
polishing upon a felt wheel or bob. 

Black color upon copper is produced by a heated pickle 
of 2 parts of arsenious acid, 4 of concentrated muriatic acid, 
1 of sulphuric acid of 66° Be., and 24 of water. 

Matt-black on copper. — Brush the object over with a 
solution of 1 part platinum chloride in 5 of water, or dip it 
in the solution. A similar result is obtained by dipping 
the copper object in a solution of nitrate of copper or 
nitrate of manganese, and drying over a coal fire. These 
manipulations are to be repeated until a uniform matt- 
black is formed. 

The bronze upon French bronze figures shows all shades 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 515 

of pale or clay yellow to red-brown, and of red to dark and 
black-brown. It has a bronze-like appearance and adheres 
firmly to the metal, i. e., appears to be chemically com- 
bined with it. To produce such colorations, solutions of 
sulphur, combinations of arsenic and antimony have been 
successfully used. After chasing and pickling the article 
must be subjected to a thorough washing with water, as 
otherwise every trace of acid left behind will later on in 
drying or bronzing penetrate through the seams and pro- 
duce indelible stripes and stains. The drying of the article 
must also be done with the greatest care. For applying 
the solutions a tuft of cotton or a soft, close brush is used. 
The work is best commenced by first applying a dilute 
solution of ammonium bisulphide as sparingly as possible, 
brushing over a certain limited portion of the figure at one 
time. The quicker and more uniformly this is done the 
better and more beautiful the bronzing will be. After dry- 
ing the sulphur separated out is brushed off and a solution 
of sulphide of arsenic in ammonia applied, the result being 
a coloration similar to massive gold. The oftener this 
solution of sulphide of arsenic is applied the browner the 
color becomes, and a very dark brown can be finally 
obtained by a solution of sulphide of arsenic in ammonium 
bisulphide. By solutions of sulphide of antimony in am- 
monia or ammonium sulphide the coloration becomes 
reddish, it being possible to produce the most delicate 
rose-color as well as the deepest dark red. By rubbing 
certain portions somewhat more strongly a very fine metal- 
lic luster is produced. Ammonia or ammonium sulphide 
redissolves the bronzing, so that places not thoroughly 
colored can be improved, though in such case it is better 
to rub off the entire figure with ammonium sulphide. In 
the same manner as the solutions in ammonia or ammon- 
ium sulphide, those in hydrate or sulphide of potassium or 
sodium can also be used, the latter being in some cases 
even more advantageous. By pickling the figure the color 



5i6 



APPENDIX. 



of the bronze is changed. If a casting of bronze or brass 
is left too long in the pickle, the metal becomes coated 
with a greenish-gray film, which on rubbing with a cloth 
rag becomes lustrous and adheres firmly. On treatment 
with the above metallic sulphides this coating acquires a 
dull-yellow coloration. 

Graham s bronzi?ig liquids* have a great range of com- 
position and of application as follows : — 



I. For brass (by simple immersion) , 















d 
































C 








P 






























3 


c 




-a 












a 


C 
















o 












u 


o 


i; 




a 





S 
S 

1-1 

co 


1 

O 

a 
"o 

CJ 
T3 

"5 












E 

3 




a 

O 
CL> 

a 


V 

'u 


1 


p. 
p. 


CJ 

"o 
u 

co 
u 


o 

T3 
u 


CO 

o 

(LI 

to 

1 


a 

Is 


1) 01 

I 6 

re 3 

o <£ 

o ™ 
to 
E a 


13 

'5 g 
>>.2 

O en 
j^ re 

°o 
"5 a 



cj 

a 
"3 

o 

a 
>> 


r2 

o 

B 

u 


tt3 

CO 
CJ 


fc 


t. 


Ch 


Ph 


2 


H 


Ph 


C-, 


u 


fc 


ffi 


z 


O 



I 

2 
3 

4 
S 
6 
7 
8 
9 

TO 

II 

12 

13 
14 


Pt. 

I 


dr. 
5 

16 


dr. 
5 

S 


pt. 
i 


oz. 

- 


gr. 


oz. 


dr. 
_ 


dr. 

- 
- 


oz. 


Pt. 

T 


dr. 

2 


dr. 

16 
- 


dr. 

i 

3 

4 


cz. 

I 

- 


Brown and 
every shade 
to black. 

Brown and 
every shade 
to red. 

Brownish-red. 

Dark brown. 

Yellow to red. 

Orange. 

Olive-green. 

Slate. 

Blue. 

Steel-gray. 

Black. 



In the preparation of No. 5 the liquid must be brought 
to boil and cooled. In using No. 13 the heat of the liquid 
must not be under 180 F. No. 6 is slow in action, some- 
times taking an hour to give good results. The action of 
the others is usually immediate. 



* Brass- Founder's Manual, London, li 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 



517 



II. For copper (by simple immersion} , 



1 




u 1 







L ' 


-6 








ft i.JL 




a 


I O M-, 









C 


ft 


a 




<v 


u ° 


rt 






O 





IS c 


3 


u 

a 


lash. 

hocyanid 
tassium. 

osulphite 
ia. 


';-c 

IS 


1-, 




1- 


a a 


ft 


u 


£ ft O Oh O 


-o 




3 « 
^1 


s 


3 


3^ 

CO 


3 

co 


3 


Ph co iffi 

1 


>> 




pt. 


dr. 


oz. 


dr. 


dr. 


dr. 


oz. 


dr. 


oz. 


dr. 




IS 1 


5 
















-r- 


Brown, and every shade to 


16 


I 


5 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


2 


— 


— 


Dark brown-drab. [black. 


17 


I 


— 


I 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


2 


2 


" " 


18 


I 


— 


— 


2 


— 


— 


I 


— 


— 


— 


Bright red. 


IQ 


I 


— 


— 


— 


1 


— 


I 


— 


— 


— 


Red, and every shade to 


20 


I 


— 


— 


— 


— 


1 


— 


— 




~l 


Steel-gray, at i8o°F. [black. 



III. For zinc (by simple immersion) , 



u 

X) 
S 


u 


C 
O 
u 

dr. 
5 


.5 

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Black. 
Dark-gray. 

Green-gray. 
Red (boil). 
Copper color. 

(with agita- 
Purple (boil). [tion) 



To provide articles of brass or bronze with a very lus- 
trous gray or black coating, the tendency of certain metallic 
salts of forming gray or black combinations with sulphur 
is utilized. For gray dip the article first into a very dilute 



: Made to the consistency of cream. 



5l8 APPENDIX. 

solution of acetate of lead, or for black into a solution of 
sulphate of copper, and after drying into a hot dilute solu- 
tion of hyposulphite of soda. 

By using the solutions in a very dilute state the articles 
acquire a peculiar, iridescent appearance similar to soap- 
bubbles, and it is also due to the same cause. It is well 
known from the teachings of physics that many bodies 
show, when in very thin layers, the peculiar color-phe- 
nomenon termed iridescence, and this is also produced by 
a very thin layer of sulphide of lead or sulphide of copper. 
By repeating the treatment of the article in very dilute 
solutions, the iridescence passes into a red, brownish, or 
violet coloration. It is impossible to give exact propor- 
tions for the production of these colors, the success of the 
coloration depending largely on the skill of the operator. 

Very beautiful, but not very permanent, iridescent coat- 
ings can be produced by placing the bright metal in a bath 
of a heavy metal decomposable by the galvanic current, 
touching it for a moment with the negative pole of the 
battery, taking it out, rinsing off, and drying. The metal 
will show all the colors of the rainbow, but the coating is 
so delicate that it must be protected by immediately dipping 
the article after drying into a quick-drying lacquer. 

There are many means of providing small articles of brass 
with a coating of one color, various liquids being, for in- 
stance, used to produce determined shades of color upon 
brass buttons. For a pure golden-yellow, the buttons are 
dipped for a few seconds in a perfectly neutral (absolutely 
free from acid) solution of acetate of copper. A gray-green 
shade is produced by repeatedly dipping them in a dilute 
solution of chloride of copper and drying after each dip- 
ping. A violet tint is obtained by heating the buttons to 
a temperature at which oxidation does not take place, and 
rubbing them with a tuft of cotton dipped in a solution of 
antimony in hydrochloric acid. 

For the production of the beautifiil gold color possessed 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 5IO, 

by many French articles of brass the following process may 
be used: Dissolve 1.76 ounces of caustic soda and 1.41 
ounces of milk sugar in 2. 11 pints of water. Boil the solu- 
tion for fifteen minutes, and after taking it from the fire 
compound it with 1.41 ounces of cold concentrated solution 
of sulphate of copper. The red precipitate of cuprous 
oxide, which is immediately formed, deposits on cooling 
upon the bottom of the vessel. The polished articles rest- 
ing upon a wooden sieve are then placed in the vessel con- 
taining the solution. After about a minute the sieve is 
taken out in order to ascertain how far the operation has 
progressed ; it is then replaced, and at the end of the 
second minute the golden color is generally dark enough. 
The sieve is then taken out, and the articles after washing 
are dried in sawdust. By allowing the articles to remain for 
a longer time in the solution they acquire in a short time a 
greenish tint, which soon becomes yellow and then bluish- 
green, until finally the iridescent colors are formed. In 
order to obtain a uniform coloration it is necessary to pro- 
duce the color slowly, which is best attained at a tempera- 
ture of from 132 to 136 F. The bath can be repeatedly 
used and kept for a long time in well-stoppered bottles. 
If partially exhausted, it can be restored by an addition of 
5.64 drachms of caustic soda, sufficient water to replace 
that lost by evaporation, heating to the boiling-point, and 
finally adding 14. 11 drachms of cold solution of sulphate of 
copper. 

To produce a beautiful silver color upon brass, proceed 
as follows : Dissolve in a well-glazed vessel 1 yi ounces of 
pulverized cream of tartar and 2.25 drachms of tartar 
emetic in 2. 11 pints of hot water, and add to the solution 
i^/l ounces of hydrochloric acid, 4^ ounces of granulated, 
or, still better, pulverized tin, and one ounce of pulverized 
antimony. Dip the article to be coated in the solution 
heated to the boiling-point. After boiling one-quarter to 
one-half an hour, they will be provided with a beautiful 
lustrous coating which is hard and durable. 



520 APPENDIX. 

Browning liquid for copper. — xA.dd acetic acid to 1 1 
drachms of spirit of sal ammoniac until blue litmus paper 
dipped in the liquid turns red. Then add 5^2 drachms of 
sal ammoniac and sufficient water to make 2. 11 pints. 
With the solution thus obtained repeatedly moisten the 
copper surfaces, rubbing after each application until the 
desired brown tint is produced. 

For colo7'ing brass Ebermayer, of Niirnberg, gives the 
following directions : (1) 8 parts of sulphate of copper, 2 of 
sal ammoniac, and 100 of water give by boiling a greenish 
color. (2) 10 parts of potassium chlorate, 10 of sulphate of 
copper, and 1000 of water give by boiling a brown-orange 
to cinnamon-brown color. (3) By dissolving 8 parts of sul- 
phate of copper in 100 of water, and adding about 100 parts 
of caustic soda until a precipitate is formed, and boiling the 
articles in the solution, they acquire a greenish-brown color, 
which can be made darker by the addition of rouge. 
(4) With 50 parts caustic soda, 50 of sulphide of antimony, 
and 500 of water, and boiling, a light fig-brown color is ob- 
tained. (5) Boil 29 parts of sulphate of copper, 20 of 
hyposulphite of soda, and 10 of cream of tartar in 400 of 
water. The brass first acquires a rose-color, and then a 
blue color. By adding 20 parts of ammonio-ferric sulphate 
and 20 of hyposulphite of soda, the colors change from yel- 
low to rose-color, and blue ; after the latter yellow again 
makes its appearance, and finally a beautiful gray is formed. 

(6) 400 parts of water, 20 of potassium chlorate, and 10 of 
nickel salt give, after boiling for some time, a brown color, 
which is, however, not formed if the sheet has been pickled. 

(7) 250 parts of water, 5 of potassium chlorate, 2 of carbon- 
ate of nickel, and 5 nickel salt give, after boiling for some 
time, a brown-yellow color playing into a magnificent red. 

(8) 250 parts of water, 5 of potassium chlorate, and 10 of 
nickel salt give a beautiful dark brown. (9) 250 parts of 
water, 5 of orpiment, and 10 of crystallized soda give at first 
a beautiful red which passes into blue, then into pale blue. 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 521 

and finally becomes white. .(10) 250 parts of water, 5 of 
nickel salt, 5 of sulphate of copper and 5 of potassium 
chlorate' give a well-covering yellow-brown color. (n) 
100 parts of water, 1 of liver of sulphur, and 5 of ammonia. 
The articles being allowed to lie in a closed vessel finally 
acquire a very beautiful blue color. 

Coloring of soft solders. — For giving the solder used in 
soldering copper the same color as the latter, prepare first 
a saturated solution of pure sulphate of copper and apply it 
to the solder. By then touching the solder with an iron or 
steel wire the latter becomes covered with a film of copper, 
which can be augmented as much as desired by repeated 
moistening with the solution of sulphate of copper and 
touching with the wire. If the soldering is to show a yel- 
low color, mix 1 part of saturated solution of sulphate of 
zinc with 2 parts of solution of sulphate of copper, apply 
the mixture to the coppered place and rub the latter with a 
zinc rod. If the soldered place is to be gilded, copper it as 
above described, then coat it with a solution of gum or 
isinglass, and strew bronze powder upon it. This forms a 
surface which, when the gum is dry, can be polished. 

Bronzing of copper, bronze-metal, and brass. — Black 
bronzing is produced by brushing the metals with dilute 
nitric acid containing a small quantity of silver in solution, 
and blazing off over the fire. This operation is repeated if 
after again brushing the articles with the acid and blazing 
off. the color is not sufficiently deep. Nitric acid which has 
been used for dissolving fine silver and then poured off is 
most suitable for the purpose. A bismuth solution may 
also be used for coloring the above-mentioned black ; after 
the operations they are coated with lacquer. Brass may be 
bronzed black as follows : Dissolve copper in an excess of 
nitric acid, dilute the resulting liquid with a large quantity 
of rain water, apply it to the warmed brass, allow to dry in 
a warm place, and finally rub with a brush or with leather. 
Or amalgamate the brass by brushing it with solution of 



522 APPENDIX. 

mercurous nitrate, and convert the mercury upon the sur- 
face into black sulphide of mercury by potassium sulphide 
solution. 

Brown bronze color is produced in the same manner as 
black, only besides silver the nitric acid must contain cop- 
per. Another method is as follows: .Dissolve i oz. of sal 
ammoniac and % oz. of oxalic acid in % pint of water and 
brush the metal several times with the solution. Sulphur- 
etted hydrogen will also produce a brown color. Dissolve 
liver of sulphur in 30 parts of water, pour the solution into 
shallow earthen-ware vessels and place the latter in a room 
protected from draught. Put the articles to be bronzed 
near the vessels. The object is still more rapidly attained 
by placing the articles over the vessels containing the liver 
of sulphur solution. This method of bronzing is especi- 
ally suitable for articles soldered with soft solder which for 
that reason cannot be exposed to the fire. 

Red-bi r own or copper-brown upon copper is produced by 
brushing the articles with a paste-like bronze consisting of 
a triturated mixture of horn shavings 1 part, verdigris 4,. 
rouge 4 and some vinegar, or by placing them in a 
liquid bronze prepared as follows : Boil a solution of verdi- 
gris 2 parts, and sal ammoniac 1 in vinegar, remove the 
scum, dilute with water, allow to settle, pour off the 
supernatant liquid, boil again in a porcelain dish and quickly 
pour it over the copper articles. The liquid should be much 
diluted, the metallic articles carefully freed from grease, and 
rest upon a wooden grate in a vessel which is immediately 
placed over the fire and the fluid brought to the boiling 
point ; finally rinse in clean water. 

Green bronze color is produced as follows : Dissolve a 
mixture of sal ammoniac Y%, argol 1 oz., and common salt 
2 ozs. in Yz pint of vinegar. To this solution add 2^ ozs. 
of cupric nitrate solution, brush the articles with the result- 
ing liquid and allow to dry. 

Coloring of zinc. — The direct coloring of zinc, according 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 523 

to existing- directions, does not yield satisfactory results 
and it is therefore advisable to first copper the zinc and 
then color the coppering. Experiments in coloring zinc 
black with alcoholic solution of chloride of antimony ac- 
cording to Dullos's process gave no useful results. Puscher's 
method is better. According to it the objects are dipped 
in a boiling solution of 5 ozs. of pure green vitriol and 3 
ozs. of sal ammoniac in 2)2 quarts of water. The loose 
black precipitate deposited upon the objects is removed by 
brushing, the objects again dipped in the hot solution, and 
then held over a coal fire until the sal ammoniac evaporates. 
By repeating the operation three or four times a firmly ad- 
hering black coating is formed. 

Gray, yellow, brown to black colors upon zinc are ob- 
tained by bringing the articles into a bath which contains 6 
to 8 quarts of water, 3^2 ozs. of nickel-ammonium sulphate; 
3^ ozs. of blue vitriol and 3% ozs. of potassium chlorate. 
The bath is to be heated to 140 F. By increasing the 
content of blue vitriol a dark color is obtained, and a lighter 
one with the use of a larger proportion of nickel salt. The 
correct proportions for the determined shades will soon be 
learned by practice. When colored, the articles are thor- 
oughly rinsed, dried, without rubbing, in warm sawdust, 
and finally rubbed with a flannel rag moistened with linseed 
oil, whereby they acquire deep luster, and the coating be- 
comes more durable. 

A sort of bronzing on zinc is obtained by rubbing it with 
a paste of pipe-clay to which has been added a solution of 
1 part by weight of crystallized verdigris, 1 of tartar, and 2 
of crystallized soda. 

Red-brown on zinc. — Rub with solution of chloride of 
copper in liquid ammonia. 

Yellow-brown shades on zinc. — Rub with solution of 
chloride of copper in vinegar. 

Browning gun barrels. — Apply a mixture of equal parts 
of butter of antimony and olive oil. Allow the mixture to 



524 APPENDIX. 

act for 12 or 14 hours, then remove the excess with a 
woolen rag, and repeat the application. When the second 
application has acted for 12 to 24 hours, the iron or steel 
will be coated with a bronze-colored layer of ferric oxide 
"with antimony, which resists the action of the air, and may 
be made lustrous by brushing with a waxed brush. 

A lustrous black on iron is obtained by the application of 
solution of sulphur in spirits of turpentine prepared by 
boiling upon the water-bath. After the evaporation of the 
spirits of turpentine a thin layer of sulphur remains upon 
the iron, which on heating the article immediately combines 
with the metal. 

A lustrous black is also obtained by freeing the iron 
articles from grease, pickling, and after drying, coating 
with sulphur balsam,* and burning in at a dark-red heat. 
If pickling is omitted, coating with sulphur balsam and 
burning-in must be twice or three times repeated. 

The same effect is produced by applying a mixture of 
three parts flower of sulphur, and one part graphite with 
turpentine and heating in the muffle. 

According to Bottger a durable blue on iron and steel 
may be obtained by dipping the article in a ^ per cent, 
solution of red prussiate of potash mixed with an equal 
volume of a ^ per cent, ferric chloride solution. 

A brown-black coating with bronze luster on iron is ob- 
tained by heating the bright iron objects and brushing 
them over with concentrated solution of potassium bi- 
chromate. When dry, heat them over a charcoal fire, and 
wash until the water running off shows no longer a yellow 
color. Repeat the operation twice or three times. A sim- 
ilar coating is obtained by heating the iron objects with a 
solution of 10 parts by weight of green vitriol and 1 part of 
sal ammoniac in water. 

* Sulphur dissolved in linseed oil. 



COLORING OF ALLOYS. 525 

To give iron a silvery appearance with high luster. — 
Scour the polished and pickled iron objects with a solution 
prepared as follows : Heat moderately i ^ ozs. of chloride 
of antimony, 0.35 oz. of pulverized arsenious acid, 2.82 ozs. 
of elutriated bloodstone with 1 quart of 90 per cent, alco- 
hol upon a water-bath for half an hour. Partial solution 
takes place. Dip into this fluid a tuft of cotton and go 
over the iron portions, using slight pressure. A thin film 
of arsenic and antimony is thereby deposited, which is the 
more lustrous the more carefully the iron has previously 
been polished. 

O11 tin a bronze-like patina may be produced by brush- 
ing the object with a solution of 1^ ozs. of blue vitriol and 
a like quantity of green vitriol in 1 quart of water, and 
moistening, when dry, with a solution of 3^2 ozs. verdigris 
in 10^2 ozs. of vinegar. When dry polish the object with 
a soft waxed brush and some rouge. The coating thus ob- 
tained is, however, not very durable, and must be pro- 
tected by a coat of lacquer. 

Warm sepia-brown tone upon tin and its alloys. Brush 
the object over with a solution of 1 part of platinum chlor- 
ide in 10 parts of water, allow the coating to dry, then rinse 
in water, and after again drying, brush with a soft brush 
until the desired brown luster appears. The coating is 
quite durable. 

Oxidizing silver. A blue-black color is produced by 
placing the articles in a solution of liver of sulphur diluted 
with spirits of sal ammoniac. Allow to remain until the 
desired dark tone is produced, then wash, dry and polish. 

A brownish tint is obtained by using a solution of equal 
parts of sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac in vinegar. 

A yellow color is imparted to silvered articles by immer- 
sion in a hot concentrated solution of chloride of copper, 
rinsing and drying. 



526 APPENDIX. 

Recovery of Waste Metals. 

Gold. Besides dust, the sweepings accumulating in gold 
workers' shops contain gold and silver as well as other 
metals alloyed with the gold or silver. To obtain the gold 
and silver proceed as follows : 

Burn the sweepings, with the addition of some saltpetre, 
in a red-hot crucible, lixiviate the residue with water, dry- 
it, and melt it with an addition of 2 per cent, of dehydrated 
borax. Dissolve the metallic mass thus obtained in aqua 
regia. The precipitate formed thereby consists of chloride 
of silver, and is worked into silver. The solution in aqua 
regia is then evaporated until it commences to become vis- 
cous. It is now diluted with water, and a bright sheet of 
copper immersed in the fluid whereby the gold in solution 
separates in the form of a brown powder, which is filtered 
off, washed, dried, and melted with a small quantity of borax, 
the product obtained being chemically pure gold. The 
precipitate of chloride of silver, mentioned above, is filtered 
off, thoroughly washed with water, and brought into a ves- 
sel. Water compounded with 10 per cent, of hydrochloric 
acid is then poured over it, and a sheet of zinc immersed in 
the fluid. After some time the chloride of silver is thereby 
converted into a gray powder of metallic silver, which is 
filtered off, washed with distilled water, dried, and melted 
with a small quantity of borax. 

The water used by the workmen in gold-workers' shops 
for washing their hands contains gold and silver. The 
water is collected in a tank, and from time to time drawn 
off from the sediment. When a sufficient quantity of the 
latter has accumulated, it is dried, the residue mixed with 5 
per cent, of saltpetre, the mass decrepitated in a red-hot 
crucible, washed with water, dried, and melted with a small 
quantity of borax. The metallic mass thus obtained is 
treated in the same manner as that from the sweepings. 

For the recovery of gold from coloring baths a solution 
of two parts by weight of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) 



RECOVERY OF WASTE METALS. 527 

in 18 parts by weight of hot water, may be used. The 
waste water as well as the exhausted coloring salts should 
be preserved in a large stone-ware jar kept for the purpose. 
Add the solution of ferrous sulphate to the contents of the 
jar and stir well, when the gold will begirt to precipitate. 
Repeat this each time after coloring, and as the jar becomes 
full add a little more ferrous sulphate and thoroughly stir 
the contents. If this produces no effect upon the solution 
the gold has all been precipitated. Now allow to settle, 
and then draw off the supernatant water, being very careful 
not to disturb the precipitate, which forms a dark spongy 
mass at the bottom. Wash the precipitate several times 
with hot water to free it from every trace of acid, then dry 
it in an iron vessel, and then fuse it in a covered crucible 
with a flux, which for i lb. of prepared sediment consists of 
carbonate of potash, 8 ozs. ; common salt, 4 ozs. ; common 
bottle glass, 4 ozs. Reduce all the ingredients to a fine 
powder and mix them well together. In order to effect a 
complete reduction of the gold great heat is required. 

According to Boettger, gold may be recovered from 
aurtfefotis fliudsby the following process : Heat the fluid in 
a porcelain vessel to the boiling-point, and then mix it 
with sodium stannate solution. Keep the mixture boiling 
until all the gold — in combination with tin — is separated in 
the form of a fine precipitate of an intense black color. 
This precipitate is washed and then dissolved in aqua-regia. 
The solution thus obtained consists of a mixture of chlor- 
ide of gold and chloride of tin. By slightly evaporating the 
solution, diluting with distilled water, mixing with a suffi- 
cient quantity of potassium and sodium tartrate (Rochelle 
salt), and heating, every trace of gold is precipitated in the 
form of a very delicate, brownish powder, while the tin re- 
mains in solution. 

Recovery of gold from old cyanide solutions. — Evaporate 
the solution to dryness, reduce the residue to a fine powder, 
mix it intimately with an equal weight of litharge (oxide of 



528 APPENDIX. 

lead), and fuse at a strong heat. From the resulting button 
of gold and lead alloy, the lead is extracted by warm nitric 
acid, the gold remaining behind as a loose, spongy mass. 

By the wet process the gold may be recovered from old 
cyanide solutions as follows : Acidulate the solution, which 
contains gold, silver and copper, with hydrochloric acid, 
whereby hydrocyanic acid is disengaged. This gas being 
extremely poisonous, the operation should be carried on in 
the open air, or where there is a good draught or ventila- 
tion to carry off the fumes. A precipitate consisting of 
the cyanides of gold and copper and chloride of silver is 
formed. This is well washed and boiled in aqua-regia, 
where the gold and copper are dissolved as chlorides, while 
the chloride of silver is left behind. The solution contain- 
ing the gold and copper is evaporated nearly to dryness in 
order to remove the excess of acid, the residue is dissolved 
in a small quantity of water, and the gold precipitated 
therefrom as a brown metallic powder by the addition 
of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol). The copper remains 
in solution. 

Finely divided zinc — so-called zinc dust — is an excellent 
agent for precipitating gold in a pulverulent form from old 
cyanide solutions. By adding zinc dust to an exhausted 
gilding bath and thoroughly shaking or stirring from time 
to time, all the gold is precipitated in two or three days. 
The quantity of zinc required for the precipitation depends 
of course on the quantity of gold present, but, generally 
speaking, yi lb. or at the utmost 1 lb. of zinc dust will be 
required for 100 quarts of exhausted gilding bath. The 
pulverulent gold obtained is washed, treated first with 
hydrochloric acid to remove adhering zinc dust, and next 
with nitric acid to free it from silver and copper. 

Separating silver. — Dissolve the alloy or metal contain- 
ing silver in the least possible quantity of nitric acid. Mix 
the solution with a large excess of ammonia and filter into 
a tall glass cylinder provided with a stopper. Introduce 



RECOVERY OF WASTE METALS. 529 

into the liquid a bright strip of copper, which should be 
long enough to project above the liquid. Pure metallic 
silver will be quickly separated. Reduction is complete 
in a short time, and the reduced silver is then washed 
first with ammoniacal solution and next with distilled 
water. The more ammoniacal and concentrated the solu- 
tion, the more rapid the reduction. The strip of copper 
should not be too thin, as it is considerably attacked, 
and any little particles which might separate from a thin 
sheet would contaminate the silver. Any accompanying 
gold remains behind during the treatment of the metal or 
alloy with nitric acid ; chloride of silver, produced by im- 
purities in the nitric acid is taken up by the ammoniacal 
solution like the copper, and is also reduced to the metallic 
state, and whatever other metal is not left behind, oxidized 
by the nitric acid, is separated as hydrate on treating with 
ammonia. Any arseniate which may have passed into the 
ammoniacal solution is not decomposed by the copper. 

Recovery of silver from old cyanide solutions. — The solu- 
tion may be evaporated to dryness, the residue mixed with 
a small quantity of calcined soda and potassium cyanide and 
fused in a crucible, whereby metallic silver is formed which, 
when the heat is sufficiently increased, will be found as a 
button upon the bottom of the crucible ; or if it is not 
desirable to heat to the melting point of silver, the fritted 
mass is dissolved in hot water, and the solution containing 
the soda and cyanide quickly filtered off from the metallic 
silver. 

According to the wet method the old cyanide solution is 
strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, observing the 
precaution to provide for the effectual carrying-off of the 
hydrocyanic acid liberated as given under gold. Remove 
the precipitated chloride of silver and cyanide of copper by 
filtration and after thorough washing, transfer it to a 
porcelain dish and treat it, with the aid of heat, with hot 
hydrochloric acid, which will dissolve the cyanide of copper. 
34 



530 APPENDIX. 

The resulting chloride of silver is then reduced to the 
metallic state by mixing it with four times its weight of 
crystallized carbonate of soda and half its weight of pulver- 
ized charcoal. The whole is made into a homogeneous 
paste which is thoroughly dried, and then introduced into 
a strongly heated crucible. When all the material has been 
introduced the heat is raised to promote complete fusion 
and to facilitate the collection of the separate globules of 
silver into a single button at the bottom of the crucible, 
where it will be found after cooling. If granulated silver 
is wanted, pour the metal in a thin stream, and from a cer- 
tain height, into a large volume of water. 

■ Utilization of nickel waste. — For the utilization of waste 
from rolled and cast nickel anodes, and of the nickel sand 
gradually collecting upon the bottoms of vats used in plat- 
ing, the following method is recommended : Wash the 
waste repeatedly in clean, hot water, and then boil in dilute 
sulphuric acid ( i part acid to 4 parts water) until the water 
poured upon the waste is no longer clouded by it. Then 
pour off the liquid, and treat the waste or sand with con- 
centrated nitric acid. This must be done very carefully, 
and a capacious porcelain vessel should be used to prevent 
the solution from running over. When the solution is 
sufficiently concentrated, so that it contains little free acid, 
it should be filtered and slowly evaporated to dryness over 
a water-bath. The product is nickel nitrate. This nickel 
nitrate is dissolved in hot distilled water, and the^ solution 
precipitated with caustic soda carefully and gradually added. 
The precipitate of hydrated nickel oxide is then carefully 
filtered and washed, and next treated with dilute sulphuric 
acid with the assistance of heat until solution has taken 
place. The solution is concentrated by evaporation, and 
an excess of concentrated solution of ammonium sulphate 
is added. The precipitate is the double sulphate of nickel 
and ammonium, or Adams' nickel-plating salt, which is 
commonly used for nickel-plating. 



RECOVERY OF WASTE METALS. 53 1 

Recovery of copper. — In works where great quantities of 
copper are operated upon, it is advantageous to recover 
the metal dissolved in the cleaning baths, which can be 
done by an easy and inexpensive process. All the liquids 
holding copper are collected in a large cask filled with 
wrought or cast-iron scraps. By the contact of the copper 
solution with the iron a chemical reaction immediately 
takes place, by which the iron is substituted for the copper 
to make a soluble salt, while the copper falls to the bottom 
of the cask as a brown powder. The cask should be of 
sufficient capacity to hold all the liquids employed in a 
day's work. The liquids are decanted every morning. 
The old iron scrap is generally suspended in a wicker basket 
near the top of the liquid, and by occasionally moving it 
about in the liquid, the metallic powder of copper alone 
falls to the bottom of the cask. The copper thus obtained 
is quite pure, aud by calcining it in contact with the air a 
black oxide of copper is obtained. 

To separate silver fro?n copper. Boil the metal in a mix- 
ture of sulphuric acid, nitric acid and water, of each i part, 
until it is completely dissolved, adding fresh liquid from 
time to time as the action ceases. When solution is com- 
plete throw in a little common salt dissolved in water, 
stir vigorously, and allow the precipitated salt to settle. 
When no more precipitate is formed by the addition of salt 
water, allow to settle, collect and wash the precipitate on a 
filter, and fuse in a crucible. 

Recovery of tin from tin-plate waste. Treat the waste 
with dilute chlorine at a temperature above the boiling- 
point of chloride of tin, so that the latter immediately after 
its formation is carried aw r ay in the form of vapor, since if 
it remains in the form of fluid in contact with the residues, 
it gives rise to the formation of chloride of iron, chloride of 
tin being reduced. The vapors of chloride of tin are pre- 
cipitated by steam or by contact with moist surfaces in 
roomy condensing chambers, or are absorbed by chloride 
of tin solution of medium concentration. 



532 APPENDIX. 

Another method is as follows : Bring the waste into con- 
tact with sulphur in a boiling-hot solution of sodium sul- 
phide, whereby the iron is completely freed from tin. The 
waste thus freed from tin is thoroughly washed and dried, 
heated to a welding heat in tubes of rolled iron, taken out 
and hammered into rod iron. The solution of sodium 
sulphide holding the tin is evaporated, the residue calcined 
in a reverberatory furnace, and the calcined mass reduced 
to tin, at a raised heat, by means of a mixture of small coal, 
charcoal, and calcined soda, or burnt lime. 

To separate lead from zinc. Melt the alloy. The spec- 
ifically heavier lead collects in the lower portion of the cru- 
cible while the lighter zinc stands over it and can be 
poured off. 

Recovery of brass from a mixture of iron and brass turn- 
ings. This may be effected by means of magnets which 
attract the iron and steel turnings while the brass remains 
behind. The same object may be attained in a very simple 
and economical manner by a melting process. Mix the 
iron and brass turnings and the slag from brass-casting 
with limestone, powdered coal and ferric oxide, and melt 
the mixture, whereby the brass separates from the liquid 
slag formed, settles on the bottom and is run off into ingot 
moulds. 



INDEX. 



ABEL, C. D. 
407-410 



alloys patented by, 



Aicb's metal, 157, 158 

Ajax metal, 301 

Alchemy, influence of, upon chemistry, 

3,4 
Alfenide, 318 
Algiers metal, 231 
Alkalies, metals of the, 23, 24 
Alkaline earths, metals of, 24 
Allevard steel, 395, 396 
Alloy, additional increase in the strength 
of an, by the addition of a third 
metal, 97-99 
change in the properties of an, by 
remelting and renewed cooling, 
67 
constitution of an, 5, 6 
definition of an, 1 
eutectic, 62 
for type metal, 357 
non-oxidizable, 463 
resisting the action of vegetable 

acids, 319 
Sorel's, 191, 192 
steels, 388-403 
very fusible, 387 

which expands on cooling, 467, 468 
Alloys, actual constitution of, 8 
behavior of, in cooling, 63 
casting capacity of, 107-116 
color of, 118-121 
coloring of, 510-525 
condensation in, 70 
conductivity for heat and electricity 

of, 116-118 
crystallization of, 93, 94 
crystallizing power of, 5 
crystals of, 7 

separated from, 6 
determination of the constituents of, 

498-509 
development of gases in casting, 

113-115 
division of, according to specific 

gravities, 91-93 
ductility of, 104-106 
earliest historical data in reference 
to, 2 

(533) 



Alloys, early preparation o 1 ', 4 

effect of degree of fluidity of, in 

casting, 112 
expansion in, 70 
flexibility of, 104-106 
formation of, 9, 10 

without fusion, 11 
fusible, 112 

melting points of, 380, 381 
general properties of, 62-127 
hardness of, 101-104 
historical order of, 3 
liquation of, 62-69 
metals principally employed for, 

134 
miscellaneous, 463-475 
new method of preparing, 463, 464 
of copper with other metals, 277- 
283 
mercury and other metals, 445- 

462 
platinum and platinum metals, 
433-444 
oldest, 2 

preparation of, in general, 128-136 
protective cover in remelting, 463 
remelting of, 132 
resembling silver, 420, 421 
resistance of, to calcium hydrate, 
507 
to chemical influences, 
121-127 
shrinkage of, 115, 116 
specific gravity of, 70-93 
strength of, 95-101 
variation in, 8 
very fusible, 380 
which can be filed, 281 
Alpaka. 307 
Aluminium, 17, 24-28 

action of, upon brass, 351 
alloy for dentists' fillings, 357 

type metal, 357 
alloving power of, 338 
alloys, 338-3U5 

of, with the precious metals, 

properties of, 339 
production of, 338, 339 
brass, 351-353 



534 



INDEX. 



Aluminium brass, tests of, 353 

uses of, 352, 353 
bronze, 341-351 
alloy, 358 

brazing of, 359, 360 
casting of, 345-349 
dilution of a high per cent., 

to a lower one, 344 
forging of, 349 
melting point of, 342 
preparation of, 342-344 
rolling of, 349, 350 
soldering of, 3(50, 361 
tests of, 350, 351 
-chromium alloy, 358 
commercial, analyses of, 27 
conductivity of heat of, 25 
-copper alloys, 341-351 

elongation of, 100 
strength of, 96 
distribution of, 26 
effect of iron on, 27 

on metals, 27, 28 
electric conductivity of, 25 
-gold alloys, 424 
solder, 491 
increase in the strength of copper 

by an addition of, 96 
-iron alloys, 339, 340 
-magnesium alloy, 358, 359 
-nickel bronze, 357, 358 

-copper alloys, 354-356 
preparation of, 26, 27 
reduction of, by electrolysis, 26, 27 
soldering of, 361-365 
specific heat of, 25 
-steel. 340, 341 
-tin alloy, 359 
titaniferous, behavior of, 49 
-titanium alloys, 48, 49 
Amalgam, definition of an, 1 
Amalgams, 445-462 

early use of, 3 
American anti-friction metal, 301 

sleigh bells, alloy for, 474 
Anatomical preparations, bismuth amal- 
gam for, 459. 460 
Andrews, G. F. , alloys recommended 

by, 357 
Anti-friction brasses, alloy for, 300 
metal, 301 

for hydraulic ma- 
i chinery, 300 
metals, table showing com- 
positions of, 302-305 
Antimony, 57, 58 

alloys of, with g^old, 424 
-bismuth alloys, specific gravities 
of, 81 82 | 



Antimony, effect of, on brass, 149, 150 
lead, 366 
increase in the hardness of lead by 

alloying with, 103 
indication of, 498 
-lead alloys, specific gravities of, 

82, 83 
-tin alloys, specific gravities of, 

80,81 
-zinc alloys, crystallization of, 94 
Aphtit, 316 

Arabs, development of chemistry by 
the, 3 
use of amalgams by the, 3 
Argentan, 312-315 
solder, 484-486 
Argent-Kuolz, 407 
Argiroide, 318 
Arguzoid, 316 

Arnold, Prof , bending tests of vana- 
dium-steel by, 398, 3d9 
Arsenic, 58, 59 

alloys of, with gold, 424 
determination of, 503, 504 
effect of, on bronze, 204 
lead, 366 
Art-bronze, furnace for melting, 266, 267 
melting and casting, 266, 267 
moulds for casting, 267 
bronzes, 258-267 
Ashberry metal, 293 
Atomic weight. 21 

weights, 135 
Austrian Northwest Railroad, white 

metal bearings used by, 297 
Autogenous soldering, 477 
Axle-boxes for locomotives and cars, 
alloy for, 300 

BABBITT'S anti-friction metal, 298, 
299 
Barium, 17 
Base metals, 16 

alloys of platinum with, 
439-441 
Bath metal, 192 

Bearing metal, Dulevie and Jones', 281 
palladium, 442 
metals, 294-305 

analyses of, 301, 302 
cheaper, 280 
Bearings, alloys for, 238, 239 _ 

composition of white metals 

for, 298 
white metals for, 298 
Bell-metal, 226-231 

additions of other metals to, 

227 
melting and casting of, 228, 229 



INDEX. 



535 



Bell-metal, properties of, 228 

metals, composition of some, 229, 
280 
Bells, disagreeable tone of, 229 
early use of, 226 
large, weight of some, 227 
moulds for casting, 231 
Berlin alloys, composition of, 182 

Railroad, white metal bearings 
used by, 296, 297 
Berthier's alloy, 308 
Biddery metal, 292, 293 
Binding wire, 477 
Birmingham platinum, 191 
Birr Castle, Ireland, telescope mirror 

at, 244 
Bismuth, 57 

alloy for cementing glass, 386 
alloys, 382-387 

for delicate castings, 386 
-amalgam, 458, 459 
-antimony alloys, 383 
-bronze, 315 
-copper alloys, 382 
effect of, on copper, 140 

flexibility of metals, 
106^ 
-gold alloys, specific gravities of, 

89,90 
group, 57, 58 
indication of, 498 
-iron alloys, 383 
-lead alloys, 383, 387 

specific gravities of, 
88, 89 _ 
-tin alloys, fusing tempera- 
tures of, 386 
-silver alloys, specific gravities of, 

88 
solder, 480 

-tin alloys. 382, 383, 387 
-lead alloys, 384 
Black bronze, 472 
Blanching, 415, 416 
Block tin, 46 
Bobierre's metal, 157 
Borax, 130 

Bourbouze's aluminium solder, 362 
Brass, action of aluminium upon, 351 
bronze substitute for, 240 
bronzing of, 521, 522 

liquids for, 516 
cast. 151-153 
casting of, 172-179 
change in the molecular structure 

of, 147 
cleaning or pickling of, 179-181 
coloring of, 520, 521 



Brass, composition of, 144 

crystalline structure of, 145 
dull, lustreless surface on, 180 
early manufacture of, 142 
effect of an addition of tin on, 148 
for sheet and wire, composition of, 

151 
furnaces, 165-170 

for the fusion of, directly 
upon the hearth, 170, 
171 
gold color on, 518, 519 
improved hard solder for, 484 
ingots, casting of, 173, 174 
introduction of the manufacture of, 

143, 144 
iridescent coatings on, 518 
Japanese, 151 

lustrous gray or black on, 517, 518 
malleable, 155, 156 
manufacture of, 163-179 

by direct fusion of 
the metals, 165- 
172 
with the use of 
zinc ores, 163- 
165 
melting point of, 147, 148 
moulds for casting, 173, 174 
pickles for, 179, 180 
plate, casting of, 174-179 
properties, manufacture, and uses 

of, 143-181 
recovery of, from a mixture of iron 

and brass turnings, 532 
sheet, 149-151 

production of, 176, 177 
silver color on. 519 

solder, 487 
solder, 480-484 

preparation of, 481-483 
soldering of, 494 
strength of, 147 

superiority of German silver to, 309 
table showing the properties of, as 

affected by its composition, 149 
testing of, 504, 505 
tough, for tubes, 153, 154 
use of old copper in the manu- 
facture of, 148 
very ductile, 147 
Brazing aluminium bronze, 359. 360 
Bristol brass, 155 
Britannia metal, 287-292 

composition of several 
varieties of, 288, 289 
preparation of, 289, 
290 



536 



INDEX. 



Britannia metal, properties of, 287, 288 
shaping of, 290, 291 
testing of, 505 
Brocade, 189, 190 
Bronze age, 201 

basin, Turkish, 2G5 
behavior of, towards the atmos- 
phere, 212 
black, 472 

castings, defective, 241 
change in the molecular structure 

of, 206, 207 
Chinese, 203 
color, brown, 522 
green, 522 
definition of, 201, 202 
deoxidized, 162 
derivation of the term, 201 
different kinds of, 216-219 
difficulty in obtaining perfect cast- 
ings of, 208, 209 
ductility of, 205, 206 
early use of, 3, 141,142 
effect of admixtures on, 203, 204 
eutectic alloy of, 212 
for articles exposed to shocks and 
very great friction, 239 
ship-sheathing, 235, 236 
small castings, 234 
telephone lines, 253, 254 
valve balls. 239, 240 
formation of blisters and pores in, 

241 
fused, effect of cooling on, 204, 205 
furnaces for melting, 214-216 
imitation, 183 
in general, 201-212 
iridescent coatings on, 518 
lustrous gray or black on, 517, 518 
melting and casting. 212-216 
moulds for casting, 241 
poling of, 240, 241 
powders, 188-190 
preparation of large quantities of. 

213, 214 
resisting acids, 467 

action of the air, 240 
securing the greatest strength of, 

207 
-sheet, crystallization of, 146 
statuary, alloys of different colors 

suitable for, 262 
table of density and composition of, 

207, 208 
testing of, 50), 506 
to be gilded, 235 

upon French bronze figures, 514- 
516 



Bronze, use of, as a substitute for iron, 237 
variations in the color of, 205 
weapon, antique. 265 

Bronzes. Chinese, 263, 264 

deterioration of, by remelting, 240, 

241 
Fontainemoreau's, 192, 193 
for various purposes, 231-244 
Japanese, 265 
melting points of, 208 
prehistoric, 216-219 
properties of, 202. 203 
strength and hardness of, 206 
tendency towards liquation of, 211 

Bronzing liquids, 516, 517 

Brunswick, Germany, telescope mirror 
at, 244 

Buttons, alloys for, 191, 192 

C ADMAN, A. W., Babbitt ' metal 
patented by, 299 
Cadmium, 40-42 

alloving power of, 41 
alloys, 378-381 

constancy of, 381 
-amalgam, 41, 42, 455, 456 
-bismuth alloys, specific gravities 

of, 87 
determination of, 503 
-lead alloys, specific gravities of, 

87,88 
properties of, 41 

pure metallic, preparation of, 40, 41 
Calcium, 17 
Calico-printing rollers, alloys for, 469- 

471 
Calin, 463 
Camelia metal, 301 

Cannon, early use of bronze for casting, 
219 
old, use of. in casting ordnance, 224 
Carats and grains, conversion of, into 

thousandths, 428 
Car-axle-boxes, alloy for, 300 
-box metal, 301 
-brasses, metal for lining, 301 
Carbon. 60, 61 

absorption of, by iron, 11 
-bronze, 301 
effect of, on iron, 389 
Carty, specific gravities of bismuth-lead 
alloys ac- 
cording to, 
88,89 
tin-b i s m uth 
alloys ac- 
cording to, 
83,84 



INDEX. 



537 



Cassiterite, 45 
Cast-brass, 151-153 
fine, 153 
French, for fine castings, 

154 
ordinary, 152, 153 
-iron, 61 

silver solder for, 489 
Casting aluminium bronze, 345-349 
brass, 172-179 
capacity, 107-116 
development of gases in, 113-115 
plate brass, 174-179 
shot, 372-376 

small articles, alloy for, 474 
Castings, delicate, bismuth alloys for, 
386 
small, bronze for, 234 
Celestite, 17 

Charpy's experiments with zinc-copper 
alloys, 97 
investigations of copper-zinc alloys, 
143 
Chemical combination, definition of a, 
21 
formulas, 22 

influences, resistance of alloys to, 
_ 121-127 
Chemistry, development of, by the 
Arabs, 3 
influence of alchemy upon, 3, 4 
preparation of alloys, a branch of, 4 
China silver, 307 
Chinese bronze, 203 
bronzes, 263, 264 
metal mirror, 244 
tam-tams or gongs, 230, 231 
Chisels, alloys for, 465 
Cliristophle metal, 307 
Chrome steel. 391-393 
Chromium, 37 

experiments showing influence of 

vanadium on, 4u3 
indication of, 501 
Chrysochalk. 183 
Chrysorin, 154, 183 
Church bells, introduction of, 226, 227 
Cinnabar. 53 
Clark's patent .alloy, 421 
Cleaning brass, 179-181 
Cliche metal, 380, 383, 384 
Clock-bells, small, alloy for, 230 
Cobalt, 34, 35 

alloying power of, 35 
bronze. 282 
indication of, 501 

naturally occurring compounds of, 
34 



Coin bronze, 232, 233 
Coinage, silver-zinc alloys for, 406 
Coins, gold, fineness of, 429 
manganese brass for, 281 
silver, composition of, 413, 414 
Swiss fractional, 411 
use of nickel for, 37 
Cologne, weight of large bell in, 227 
Color of alloys, 118-121 
Coloring of alloys, 510-525 
Colors, temperatures corresponding to 

different, 14 
Common salt solution, formation of ice 

in a, 62, 63 
Compensation balances, alloy for, 471. 

472 
Conductivity for heat and electi'icity, 

116-118 
Copper's mirror metal, 441 

pen metal, 441 
Copper, 52, 53 

alloying power of, 53 
-alloys, 137, 200 

most important, 140 
of, with base metals, 141, 
142 
other metals, 277- 
233 
-amalgam, 450, 451 
and much zinc, alloys of, 280 
-antimony alloys, 282, 283 

melting tempera- 
tures of, 111 
-arsenic alloys, 277 
black on, 514 
blue-black on, 514 
-gray on, 514 
bronzing liquids for, 517 
of, 514, 521, 522 
brown color on, 513 
browning liquid for, 520 
-cobalt alloys, 281, 282 
commercial, sources of, 140 
conductivity of, 117 
early alloys of, 2 

effect of foreign bodies on, 137- 
140 
silicon on, 251 
flexibility of, 105 
formation of cuprous oxide in, 8 
-gold alloys, 140. 141 

specific gravities of, 
78 
increase in strength of, 96 

of, by an addition 
of aluminium, 96 
of, by an addition 
of zinc, 97 



538 



INDEX. 



Copper, indication of, 499 
-iron alloys, 27S, 466 
Japanese, 417 
-lead alloys, 277, 278 

liquation of,"69 
-magnesium alloys, 282 
matt-black on, 514 
melting point of, 108 
-nickel-silver alloys, 322, 323 
old, use of, in the manufacture of 

brass, 148 
recovery of, 531 
red-brown on, 513, 522 
separation of silver from, 531 
-silver alloys, 141 

resistance of, to 
chemical influ- 
ences, 125 
specific gravities of, 

77, 78 
wear of, by abrasion, 
103 
soldering of, 494 
-steel, 279, 280 
tensile strength of, 275, 276 
test for the quality of, 150, 151 
-tin alloys, 201, 276 

crystallization of, 93 
determinations of the 
specific gravities of, 
71-76 
hardness of, 102 
liquation of, 68 
resistance of to acids 

and salts, 123 
strength of, 99, 100 
table of mechanical and 
physical properties of, 
267-273 
-nickel alloys, with or without 
zinc. 322 
-tungsten alloys, 281 
varying intensity of coloration pro- 
duced by, 119", 120 
-zinc alloys, 142-'_00 

behavior of, 144, 145 
crystallization of, 93, 

• . 94 

influence of sea-water 

upon, 123, 124 
liquation of, 69 
melting temperatures 

of,_109 
physical properties of, 

145-149 
resistance of, to acids 

and salts, 123 
specific gravities of, 

76,77 



Copper-zinc alloys, table of the properties 
of. 193-197 _ 
-nickel alloys, composition of. 
■ 320, 321 

-iron allovs, composi- 
tion of, 321, 322 
-lead alloys, composi- 
tion of, 321 
-tin alloys, influence of sea- 
water upon, 123, 124 
Cornish bronze, 301 
Crucible furnace, revolving, 169, 170 
Crucibles, 128, 129 

for melting brass, 166, 167 
furnaces for, 165-170 
Crystallization. 93, 94 
Cuivre-fume, 514 

Cupro-manganese, preparation of, 254-. 
256 
properties of, 256 
Cuprous oxide, effect of, on copper, 138 
formation of, in copper, 8 
Cutting tools, hard alloys for, 333 
Cymbals, early use of, 226 

DAMASCUS bronze, 301 
D'Arcet's fusible alloys, 385 
gilding metals, 155 

Dead-head. 221 

Dechenite, 43 

Delalot's alloy, 420 

Delta metal, 159-161 

strength of, 98 

Dentists' fillings, aluminium alloy for, 
357 

Deoxidized bronze, 162 

Dewrance^ patent bearing for loco- 
motives, 300 

Dutch leaf, 186-188 

Dienett's German silver, 317 

Drilling tools, hard alloys for, 333 

Drills, alloys for. 465 

Dronier's malleable bronze, 452 

Ductility, 104-106 

Dudley, C. B. . investigations of bearing 
metals by, 301, 302 

Dulevie and Jones' bearing metal, 2S1 

Durano metal, 161 

Dutch gold, 186-188 

EGYPTIAN metal mirror, 244 
Electric furnace, Moisson and 
Violle's,47, 
48 
of Deutsche 
GoldundSil- 
berscheide- 
anstalt, 50, 
51 



INDEX. 



539 



Electricity and heat, conductivity of 

alloys for, 116-118 
Elements, classification of, 12 
combination of, 135 
groups of, 12 

names, symbols and atomic weights 
of, .21," 22 
Enameled work, solders for, 490 
England, introduction of the manu- 
facture of brass in, 144 
silver-copperalloys employed in, for 
manufacturing purposes, 414, 415 
English metal, 293, 294 

process of manufacturing German 

silver,.327-329 
sterro-metal, 158, 159 
type metals, 368 
white metal, 300 

ordinary, 192 
Erfurt, weight of large bell in, 227 
Erhart's type metal, 369 
Erythrine. 31 
Eutectic alloy, 62 
lead-tin alloy, 66 
silver copper alloy, 65, 66 
Evans's metallic cement, 456 
Ex. B. metal, 301 

PAHLUN brilliants, 285 
Fat, use of, in melting metals, 130 
Fenton's alloy for ade-boxes for loco- 
motives and cars, 300 
Ferro-chrome, preparation of, 391, 392 
-cobalt, malleable, 466, 467 
-German silver, 316 
-manganese, 390, 391 
-nickel, 466, 467 

production of, 335, 336 
-tungsten, 393, 394 
Fire-gilding, 448-450 

early knowledge of, 3 

gold amalgam for, 447 

Fireworks, magnesium alloys for, 29, 30 

Fleitman, Dr., process of, for refining 

and toughening nickel, 36 
Flexibility, 104-106 
Fluidity, 112 

Flutes, alloy for keys of, 370 
Flux for hard soldering, 489, 493, 494 
Fontainemoreau's bronzes, 192, 193 
Forging aluminium bronze, 349 
Foundry pig, 389 

French bronze figures, bronze upon, 
&14-516 
ordnance, analyses of, 68 
oreide, 184, 185 
silver solder, 487 
type metals, 368 



Frishmuth's aluminium solder, 362 
Furnace for melting art-bronze, 266, 267 
platinum. 433, 434 
reverberatorv, for wood-firing, 177 
used by gold-ware manufacturers, 
426. 427 
Furnaces, brass, 165-170 

for heating German-silver sheet, 
329-332 
melting bronze, 214-216 

gun-metal 222-224 
Fusible alloys, 112 

amalgams of the, 456, 457 

D' Arcet's, 385 

melting points of, 380, 381 

GALLIUM, 42 
Gases, development of, 113-115 
origin of, 114 
Gedge's alloyforship-sheathing,158,159 
Geitner, Dr., invention of argentan by, 

307 
General properties of alloys, 62-127 
German admiralty specifications for 
Babbitt metal, 299 
process of manufacturing German 

silver, 325-327 
silver, 312-315 

additions to, 310, 311 
alloy resembling. 463 
analyses of, 313, 314 
foil, "329 

invention of, 307 
manufacture of, 324-332 
mechanical manipulation of, 312 
sheet, manufacture of. 329-332 
substitutes for, 315-319 
superiority of, to brass, 309 
testing of, 506 
Germany, introduction of the manu- 
facture of brass in, 144 
Gilding metals, D'Arcet's, 155 

spurious. 455 
Glass, 130 

bismuth alloy for cementing, 386 
globes, amalgams for silvering, 459 
pressed, alloy for moulds for, 463 
Godfrey's silver-zinc alloys, 405, 406 
Gold, 55, 56 

alloys, 422-432 
colors of, 429 

melting temperatures of, 109 
preparation of, 424-427 

by the galvanic 
process, 432 
proportions of various metals 
. incorporated in, 430, 431 
standards of, 427 



540 



INDEX. 



Gold alloys, use of. 428-432 

which can be legally used in 
various countries, 430 
-aluminium alloys, 424 

properties of, 339 
solder, 363 
amalgam, 446-448 

containing silver, 447, 448 
for fire gilding, 447 
native, 448 
behavior of lead towards, 423 
bronze, 234, 235 
coins, composition of, 141 

fineness of, 429 
colored, 431 
coloring finished articles of, 432 

power of, 121 
-copper, 183 
alloys, 423 

flexibility of, 106 
liquation of, 69 
early alloys of. 2 
granulated. 427 
group, 55-57 
increase in the strength of, by 

alloying, 97 
-iron alloys, 423 
-like alloy, 472, 473 
-palladium alloys, 424 
recovery of, by the wet process, 528 
from auriferous fluids, 
527 
cyanide solutions, 

527, 528 
wash-water, 526 
scrap, remelting of, 427 
separation of silver from. 528, 529 
-silver alloys, 423 

crystallization of, 94 
liquation of, 69 
resistance of, to chemical 
influences, 125 
solders, 489-491 

-tin alloys, crystallizations of, 94 
-ware manufacturers, furnace used 
by, 426, 427 
testing of, 506, 507 
waste recovery of, 526-528 
wires, strength of, 98 
Gongs, Chinese, 230. 231 
Graham's bronzing liquids, 516, 517 
Grain tin, 46 
Graney bronze, 301 

Granite moulds for plate-brass, 175, 176 
Granulated gold, 427 
Graphite, CO 

-bearing metal, 301 
Gray gold, 423 



Gray pig iron, 389 
Greek coin-bronze, 233 
Greeks, knowledge of the art of mixing 
metals by the, 2 
use of amalgams by the, 3 
Green gold, 423 
Greenockite, 40 
Guettier's button metals, 192 
Gun-barrels, browning of, 523, 524 
-metal, 219-226 

effect of casting temperature 

on, 224. 225 
furnaces for melting, 222-224 
properties of good, 220, 221 

HALF- WHITE solder," 481 
-yellow solder, 481 
Hamilton's metal, 154 
Hampe's researches on the effect of ad- 
mixtures on copper, 139, 140 
Hard silver solder, 487 
soldering fluid, 493 

flux for, 4S9 
solders, 480-486 
Hardness, 101-104 

determination of the degree of, 102 
Harrington bronze, 301 
Heat and electricity, conductivity of 
alloys for, 116-118 
development oi, in alloying metals, 
10,11 
Heavy metals, 16, 30, 59 

groups of, 18, 19 
Helouise's investigations of the effect of 

vanadium on steel, 397, 398 
Henniger Bros. , invention of Neusilber 

by, 307 
Holland, John, process of, for making 

phosphor-iridium, 443 
Holzmann,specificgravities of antimony- 
bismuth alloys ac- 
cording to, 81, 82 
bismuth-gold alloys 
according to, 89, 
90 
bismuth-silver al- 
loys according to, 

88 . 

cadminm-lead al- 
loys according to, 
87,88 

tin-gold alloys ac- 
cording to, 86 

tin-mercury alloys 
according to, 90, 
91 

tin-silver alloys ac- 
cording to, 84, 85 



INDEX. 



541 



Homestead, Pa., preparation of nickel- 
steel at, 336 

Hoper's phosphor-bronze, 250 

Hoyle's patent alloy for pivot bearings, 
300 

Hydraulic machinery, anti-friction 
metal for, 300 

ILLUMINATING purposes, pyro- 
phorous alloys for, 473 
Imitation bronze, 183 
Indium, 42 

-gallium alloys, 464, 465 
Iridium-osmium alloy, 442 

-steel, 442 
Iron, 30-33 

absorption of carbon by, 11 
nickel by, 11 
addition of, to German silver, 310, 

311 
affinity of, for lead, 366 
alloying power of, 32 
alloys, 388-403 

technical importance of, 33 
amalgam, 457. 458 
and brass turnings, recovery of 

brass from a mixture of, 532 
blue on, 524 
brown-black coating with bronze 

luster on, 524 
chemically pure, preparation of, 

31, 32 
cold-short, 20 
commercial, 1, 388 
constitution of, 31 
derivation of substances which com- 
bine with, 388 
determination of, 509 
effect of, on aluminium, 27 
on bronze, 204 
on copper, 138 
phosphorus on, 61 
group, 30-38 
hot-short, 20 

increase in the hardness of, 103, 104 
influence of carbon on, 60, 61 
lustrous black on, 524 
-manganese alloys, crystallization 

of, 94 
most important constituent of, 389 
native, 30, 31 
pure, 20 
red-short, 20 

reduction in the melting tempera- 
ture of, U8 
- silvery appearance with high luster 
on. 525 
solution of, in zinc, 33 



Iron-tin alloys, crystallization of, 94 
use of bronze as a substitute for, 237 
varieties of, 389 

with chromium, tungsten, molyb- 
denum, alloys of, 465, 4C6 

JAPANESE brass, 151 
bronzes, 265 

remarkable series of alloys of, 
416-419 
Jewelers, proportions of various metals 
incorporated in gold alloys used by. 
430, 431 
Jewelry, soldering of, 496, 497 
Joujou gold, 429 

KAPFENBEEG ferro-chrome, 392 
Kalischer, S., researches of, in 
regard to metals becoming crys- 
talline, 145-147 
Karmarsch, brass solders, according to. 
484 
determinations of specific gravities 
of copper-silver alloys by, 77, 78 . 
investigations of Britannia metal 
by, 289 
Kerl on the effect of antimony on brass, 

150 
Keys of flutes, alloy for, 370 
Kilogrammes, alloy for, 435 
King crucible, 167 
Kingston's metal, 300 
Kuromi, 417, 418 

LACQUERS, table of, 510, 511 
Lancon's aluminium solder. 362, 
363 
Langley, J. W. , on aluminium-steel, 

340, 341 
Lead, 51, 52 

addition of, to German silver, 314, 

315 
alloying power of, 52 
alloys, 366-377 

-amalgams, specific gravities of, 91 
behavior of, towards gold, 423 
detection of, in tin, 508 
determination of, 502 
effect of, on bronze, 203 

copper, 137, 138 
-foil, to distinguish tin-foil from, 

508 
-gold alloys, specific gravities of, 

79,80 
group, 51, 52 
increase in the hardness of, by 

alloying with antimony, 103 
indication of, 498 



542 



INDEX. 



Lead- iron alloys, 376, 377 
melting point of, 107 
-mercury alloys, specific gravities 

of, 91 
rolled, crystalline structure of, 146 
separation of, from zinc, 532 
-silver alloys, crystallization of, 94 

liquation of, 69 
tempered, 475 

-tin alloys, action of acids and salt 
solutions upon, 125- 
127 
hardness of, 103 
melting temperatures of, 
107, 108 
eutectic alloy, 66 
Lead vanadate, 400 
Lechesne, 356, 357 

Ledebur, type metal according to, 369 
Lichtenberg' s metal, 385 
Light metals, 16, 17 
Lipowitz's alloy, 378, 379 

metal, amalgam of, 456, 457 
Liquation, 62-69 
definition of, 66 

effect of, in working metals, 66, 67 
Lithium, 17, 24 

Loam moulds for plate-brass, 175 
Locomotive axle-boxes, alloy for, 300 
Locomotives, Dewrance's patent bear- 
ing for, 300 
Long, specific gravities of antimony-tin 
alloys, according 
to, 80, 81 
of tin-lead alloys, 
according to, 85, 
86 
Looking glasses, amalgam for. 452, 453 
Lutecine, 468 
Lyons gold, 182 

MACHINE-BRONZE. 236-240 
composition of, 237, 
238 
Macht's yellow metal, 157 
Mackenzie's amalgam, 462 
Magic mirrors. 244 

spoon, 387 
Magnesium, 17, 28-30 

alloys for fireworks, 29. 30 

preparation of, 29 
amalgamation of, with mercury, 29 
determination of. 50(), 501 
-potassium alloys, 29 
properties of, 28, 29 
-sodium alloys, 29 
Magnolia metal, 301 
Maillechort, invention of, 307 



Malleable brass, 155, 156 

iron, 389 
Manganese, 33, 34 

alloying power of, 34 
brass, 281 

-bronze, 254-258, 301 
preparation of, 256, 257 
effect of, on iron, 390 
German silver, 316 
steel, 390, 391 
testing for, 501, 502 
Manganin, 317 
Manilla gold, 186 
Mannheim gold, 183 
Marbeau's nickel-spiegel, 335 
Marbled alloy, 418-420 
Marcus Aurelius, statue of, 3 
Marlie's non-oxidizable alloy, 474 
Marsh's apparatus, 503, 504 
Marshasila, 38 

Martino's hard alloys for drilling and 
cutting tools. 333 
platinoid, 316, 317 
Matthiessen, A., investigation of the 
conducting power for electricity 
of metals by, 116, 117 
specific gravities of antimony-lead 
alloys ac- 
cording to, 
82, 83 
cadmium - bis- 
muth alloys 
acco r d i n g 
to. 87 
lead-gold al- 
loys accord- 
ing to, 79, 
80 
silver-lead al- 
loys accord- 
ing to, 80 
silver-gold al- 
loys accord- 
ing to, 79 
tin - cadmium 
alloys ac- 
cording to, 
83 
Medal bronze, 232, 233 
Melting and casting art-bronze, 266, 267 
bell-metal, 228, 229 
bronze, 212-216 
in a reverberatory furnace, 129, 

130 
temperature, effect of, in casting, 

107-112 
utensils, 128 
Mercury, 53, 54 



INDEX. 



543 



Mercury, alloying or amalgamating 
power of, 54 
alloys of r and other metals, 445- 

462 
amalgamation of magnesium with, 

29 
early knowledge of, 3 
indication of, 499 
testing of, 508 
Metal castings, alloy for filling out de- 
fective places in, 3S4 
changes in the properties of a, by 

alloying, 1 
definition of a, 13 
for lining car brasses, 301 
Metallic cement, Evans's, 456 

Vienna, 451, 452 
pencils, 460 
Metalline, 357 
Metalloids, 8,9, 12 
Metals, 12 

addition of, to bell-metal, 227 
affinity of, for oxygen, 15, 16 
alloying larger quantities of one, 
with smaller quantities of an- 
other, 133, 134 
alloying power of, 9 
base, alloys of copper with, 141 , 142 
bases, 16 

bismuth group of, 57, 58 
chemical relations of the, 15-22 
combination of, with non-metals, 
135,136 
sulphur, 59, 
60 
common characteristics of, 15 
development of gases in casting, 
113-115 
heat in alloying, 
10, 11 
early knowledge of mixing, 2 
effect of aluminium on, 27, 28 

bismuth on the flexibility 

of, 106 
degree of fluidity of, in 

casting, 112 
different, on bronze, 203, 

204 
liquation on working, 66, 

67 
phosphorus on, 61 
gold group of, 55-57 
groups of, 17 
heavy, 16, 30-59 

groups of, 18. 19 
increase in the limit of elasticity of, 

by alloying, 99 
iron group of, 30-38 



Metals, law regarding the influences ex- 
erted upon the strength of, by 
alloying, 95 
lead group of, 51. 52 
light, 16, 17 

liquid, solidification of, 67, 68 
most important, determination of 

impurities of, 498-509 
noble, 16 

preparation of alloys from, 131 
of the alkalies, 17, 23, 24 

alkaline earths, 17, 24 
_ earths, 17, 18, 24, 30 
physical and chemical relations of 
the, 12-22 
relations of the, 13-15 
principally employed for alloys, 134 
properties of, 13, 14 
resistance of, to calcium hydrate, 507 
scale of the coloring power of, 119 
shrinkage of, 115, 116 
silver group of, 52-55 
special properties of, 23-61 
strength of, 95 
tendency of, to become crvstalline. 

145-147 
tin group of, 45-51 
tungsten group of, 42-45 
use of fat, in melting. 130 
white, 294-305 
zinc group of, 38-42 
Meteorites, 31 
Meter rules, alloy for, 435 
Mierzinski's solder for aluminium 

bronze, 360 
Milan, weight of large bell in, 227 
Minargent, 420 
Minofor metal, 293 
Mira metal, 283 
Mirror, Chinese, 244 

composition of a, 242 
Egyptian, 244 
-metal, Cooper's, 441 
Roman, 244 
Mirrors, amalgam for, 452, 453 
concave, alloy for. 243 
magic, 244 
Mitis castings, 339 
Moissan and Violle's electric furnace. 

47, 48 . 
Moku-me, 418-420 
Molybdenum, 43 
Mosaic gold, 154 
Moscow, Russia, weight of large bell in. 

227 
Moulds for Britannia metal, 290 
casting art-bronze, 267 
articles of brass, 174 



544 



INDEX. 



Moulds for casting bells, 231 
bronze, 241 
ingots of brass, 173, 174 
pressed glass, alloy for, 463 
Mourey's aluminium solders, 361, 362 
Mouset's silver alloy, 411 
Mudge. specula made by, 242 
Muffle furnace for heating German 

silver sheet, 329-332 
Muntz metal, 156, 157 
Mushet steel, 395, 396 
Music, composition of plates for engrav- 
ing, 369 
Musiv silver, 454 

NEWTON'S metal, 384 
Nickel, 35-37 

absorption of, by iron, 11 
alloying power of, 36, 37 
alloys, 306-337 

analyses of, 324 
composition of, 319-323 
properties of. 311 
-aluminium alloy, 333 
amalgam, 462 
arsenic in, 309, 310 
-bronze, 315 

coloring power of. 120, 121 
-copper alloys, 307-309 

-zinc alloys, 309-322 
effect of, on bronze, 204 
indication of, 501 
ores, reduction of, 310 
refining and toughening of, 36 
purification of, 408 
source of, 309 

-speiss, treatment of, 408, 409 
-spiegel. Marbeau's, 335 
-steel, 333-337 
alloys, 37 

conductivity of, 337 
tests of, 337 
testing of. 508 
-tin alloy, 332, 333 
use of, for coins, 37 
waste, utilization of, 530 
Noble metals, preparation of alloys 

from, 131 
Non-metals, 8,9, 12, 16 

combination of, with metals, 
135, 136 
Non-oxidizable alloy, 463, 474 

0LMUTZ, weight of large bell in, 227 
Onion's fusible alloy, 385 
Ordnance-bronze, 219-226 

composition of, 226 
cooling of, 225 



Ordnance-bronze, effect of casting tem- 
perature on, 224, 225 

French, analyses of, 68 

or gun metal, 219-226 

use of old cannon in casting, 224 
Oreide, French, 184, 185 
Ormolu, 234 
Oxygen, affinity of metals for, 15, 16 

effect of, on bronze, 209 

PACKFONG, 306 
foil, 329 
Pale gold, 423 
Palladium alloys, 441, 442 

bearing metal, 442 
Paris metal, 468 

weight of large bell in, 227 
Partinium, 358 
Patina, 124, 260. 261 

coating, similar to, 511, 512 
Patterns, small, alloys for, 468, 469 
Pattinson's desilverizing process, 6 
Pen'-metal, Cooper's, 441 
Pennsylvania Railroad Co. , Ex-B metal 

of, 301 
Pforzheim gold, 430 
Pholin's silver-like alloy, 460 
Phosphor-aluminium bronze, 250, 251 
-bronze, 61, 244-251 
analyses of, 249 
content of phosphorus in, 248 
grades of, 249 
preparation of, 246 
properties of correctly-pre- 
pared, 247 
results of phvsical tests of, 

247, 248 
uses of, 248 
wire, 247 
-copper, 246 
-iridium, 443, 444 
"-lead bronzes, 250 
-tin, 246, 247 
Phosphorus, 61 

content of, in phosphor-bronze, 248 
effect of, on bronze, 210 
on copper, 139 
Physical and chemical relations of the 

metals, 12-22 
Piat's revolving crucible furnace, 169, 

170 
Pickling brass, 179-181 

solution, 417 
Pig iron, 389 
Pinchbeck, 184 
Pirsch's German silver, 318 

-Baudoin's alloy, 421 
Pivot bearings, alloy for, 300 



INDEX. 



545 



Platina, 186 
Platine au titre. 437 
Platinoid, 316, 317 
Platinor, 437, 438 
Platinum, 56, 57 

alloys of, with the base metals, 
439-441 
preparation of, 434 

aluminium solder, 363 

amalgam, 462 

and platinum metals, alloys of, 
433-444 

-bronze, 438 

-copper alloys, 439-441 

furnace. 433-434 

-gold alloys, 436 

melting points of, 436 
-silver alloys, 437 

indication of, 498 

iridium alloys, 434, 435 

-iron alloys, 439 

-lead, 191 

-palladium alloys, 435 

properties of, 433 

-silver alloys, 437 
Plumbago, 60 

Plumbers' sealed solder, 479 
Potassium, 17, 23 

-amalgam, 461, 462 

-magnesium alloys, 29 
Potin gris, 152, 153 
Potinjaune, 152, 153 
Prechtl brass solders, 484 
Preparation of alloys in general, 1 28-136 
Prince's metal, 155 

Pyrometric measurements, use of plati- 
num-gold alloys for, 436 
Pyrophorous alloys for illuminating 
purposes, 473 

/QUICKSILVER, 53, 54 

"DEFLECTORS, aluminium-magnes- 
Xi ium alloy for, 359 
Reverberatory furnace for melting 
bronze, 214 
for wood firing, 177 
melting in a, 129, 
130 
Revolving crucible furnace, 169, 170 
Rheostats, alloy for, 257, 258 
Rhodium-steel, 442 
Richards' aluminium solder. 364, 365 

bronze, 353 
Riche, determinations of specific gravi- 
ties of copper-zinc allovs, by, 76, 
77 



Riche and Thurston, determinations of 
the specific gravities of copper- 
tin alloys, by, 71-76 
Riley, James, on nickel-steel alloys, 37, 

336 
Roberts, determination of specific gravi- 
ties of copper-gold alloys by, 78 
Robertson's alloy for filling teeth, 474 
Rolling aluminium-bronze, examples of, 

349, 350 
Roman coin-bronze, 233 
Roman metal mirror, 244 
Rome, weight of large bell in, 227 
Ronia metal, 155 
Rose's alloys, 384 

metal, 112 
Rosein, 333 

Ross, composition of speculum metal ac- 
cording to, 242, 243 
telescope, composition of the mirror 
of, 243 
Rubbers of electrical machines, amalgam 

for coating, 453, 454 
Ruolz alloys, 322,323 

SAFETY-PLATES for steam boiler*, 
334 
Salgee anti-friction metal, 301 
Salt, common, solutions, 6, 7 
Sauer's aluminium solder, 363, 364 
Scheelite, 43 
Schlosser's solder for aluminium bronze, 

360, 361 
Schneider, M. Henry, patent of, for cop- 
per-steel. 279 
patents of, for 
manufacture of 
alloys of cast- 
iron and nickel, 
steel and nickel, 
333-335 
Scrap-gold, remelting of, 427 
Shaku-do, 416 
Sheet brass, 149-151 

crystalline, structure of, 146 
production of, 176, 177 
-copper, crystalline structure of, 146 
-iron, crystalline structure of, 146 
-tombac, crystalline structure of, 146 
Sheffield Britannia metal, 289 
Shibu-ichi, 416, 417 
Ship-sheathing, bronze for, 235, 236 

Gedge's alloy for, 158, 159 
Shot, casting of, 372-376 

formation of by centrifugal power, 

373 
large, manufacture of, 376 
-metal, 370-376 



546 



INDEX. 



Shot, mixture of metals for, 370 
preparation of, 371 
sorting of, 375, 376 
-towers, 372 
-wells. 372 
Shrinkage, 115. 116 
Sideraphite, 472 
Sign-plates, alloy for, 474, 475 
Silicon-bronze, 251-254 

properties of, 251 
telegraph wire, 251-254 
effect of, on copper, 138, 139, 251 
iron, 389 
Silver, 54, 55 

addition of, to German silver, 311 
alloy resembling, 463 
alloying power of, 55 
alloys, 404-421 

melting temperatures of, 109 
resembling, 420, 421 
solder for, 487 
aluminium alloys, 404, 405 

properties of, 339 
amalgam, 448 
-arsenic alloys, 411 
bell-metal, 231 
bronze, 333 

coins, composition of, 413, 414 
-copper alloy, magnified surfaces of 
a, 64, 65 
alloys, 412, 416 
flexibility of, 106 
liquation of, 69 
-cadmium alloys, 411, 412 
eutectic alloy, 65. 66 
-nickel alloys, 406, 407 
-zinc alloys, 410, 411 
crystals, separation of, from a 

melted silver-copper alloy, 63 
early allovs of, 2 
flexibility of, 105, 106 
-gold alloys, specific gravities of, 

79 
group, 52-55 
increase in the strength of, by 

alloying, 97 
indication of, 499 

-lead allovs, specific gravities of, 80 
-like alloy,316, 460 
melting point of, 108 
-mercury alloys, crystallization of, 

94 
oxidizing of, 525 

prize offered for the invention of a 
substitute for, 306, 307 

recovery of, from cyanide solu- 
tions, 529, 530 

separation of, from copper, 531 



Silver, separation of, from gold, 528, 529 
solder for cast-iron, 489 
for steel, 489 
French, 487 
hard, 487 
ordinary hard, 487 
soft, 487 
solders for special work, 488, 489 
-waste, recovery of, 528-530 
-zinc alloys, 405, 406 
Silverine, 307 

Silvering, alloy for, 473, 474 
Similor, 183 
Singer' s amalgam for coating rubbers of 

electrical machines, 454 
Sleigh bells, alloy for, 230 

American, alloy for, 474 
Smaltine, 34 

Smith, David, invention of, for manu- 
facturing drop-shot, 373-375 
Smith. J. Kent, on vanadium steel, 399, 
400 
tests by, of steel with 
and without vanad- 
ium, 398 
Sodium, 17, 23 

alloys of magnesium with, 29 
amalgam, 460, 461 
Soft silver solder, 487 
solders, 478-480 
coloring of, 521 
Solbisky's nickel-aluminium alloys, 333 
Solder for manganese-brass, 281 

soft, preparation of, 479, 480 
Soldering aluminium, 361-365 
bronze, 360, 361 
autogenous, 477 
fat, 493 
fluids, 491-497 
jewelry, 496, 497 
pan, 496, 497 
processes, conditions to be observed 

in, 476, 477 
treatment of solders in, 431-497 
Solders and soldering, 476-497 
constituents of, 476 
containing precious metals, 486-491 
for aluminium, 361-365 
enameled work, 490 
hard, 480-486 
in general, 476-478 
soft, 478-480 
coloring of, 521 
composition and melting points 

of, 478, 479 
testing of, 508 
treatment of, in soldering, 491-497 
varieties of, 476 



INDEX. 



547 



Solutions, change in the physical prop- 
erties of, 6 
Sorel's alloy, 191, 192 
Special properties of the metals, 23-61 
Specific gravity of alloys, 70-93 

rule for calculating the, 71 
Speculum metal, 242-244 

actual, composition of, 242 
various compositions used 
for, 243 
Speiss, 35 
Spelter, 39 
Spence's metal, 468 

Sperry, E. S., analyses of nickel alloys 
by, 324 
investigations of, on the influence 
of antimony on brass, 149, 150 
Spoons, alloy for, 463 
Statuary bronze, alloys of different 

colors suitable for, 262 
Statues, best bronze for, 262' 

celebrated, composition of, 262, 263 
mixture of metals for casting, 259, 
260 
Statuettes, small, manufacture of, 457 
Steam boilers, safety plates for, 384 
Steel, 20, 61, 389 

articles, baths used in tempering 

and heating, 286 
-bronze, 225, 226 
comparative effect of chromium 

and vanadium on, 399 
composition, 465 
effect of chromium in, 392, 393 
Helouise's investigations of the 
effect of vanadium on, 397, 398 
results obtained by the addition 

of vanadium to. 401 
silver solder for, 489 
tools, tempering of, 387 
with and without vanadium, 
tests of, 398 
Sterling metal, 152, 153 
Sterro-metal, 158, 159 
Stopcocks, alloy for, 300 
Stream-tin, 45 
Strength of alloys, 95-101 

tensile, 95 
Strontianite, 17 
Strontium, 17 
Suhl white copper, 306 
Sullage piece, 221, 222 
Sulphur, 59, 60 

effect of, on copper, 138, 139 
Sulphuretted hydrogen, apparatus for 

preparing, 499, 500 
Sun-bronze, 357 
Swiss coins, composition of, 311 



Swiss fractional coins, 411 
Symbols, formation of the, 21 

TABLE bells, alloy for, 230 
for conversion of carats and grains 

into thousandths, 428 
of analyses of German silver, 313, 
314 
nickel alloys, 324 
of names, symbols and atomic 

weights of the elements, 21. 22 
showing comparative effect of chro- 
mium and vanadium on steel, 
399 
composition and melting-points 
of soft-solders, 478, 479 
and melting-points of sol- 
ders, 495 
of alloys for bearings, 238, 

239 
of alloys for calico printing 

rollers, 476, 477 
of alloys of different colors 
suitable for statuary 
bronze, 262 
of ancient bronzes, 219 
of anti-friction metals, 302- 

305 
of Britannia metal, 289 
of bell metals, 229, 230 
of brass for sheet and wire, 

151 
of brass solders, 483 
of cast-brass, 152 
of celebrated statues, 262, 

263 
of gold alloys most fre- 
quently used, with their 
specific colors, 431 
of gold solders, 490 
of machine bronze, 238 
of nickel alloys, 319-323 
of ordnance-bronze, 226 
of silver coins of various 

nations, 414 
of silver-copper alloys em- 
ployed in England for 
manufacturing purposes, 
414, 415 
of tombac, 182 
of white metals for bear- 
ings, 298 
density and composition of 

bronze, 207, 208 
fusing temperatures of bismuth- 
lead-tin alloys, 386 
influence of vanadium on 
chrome, 403 



548 



INDEX. 



Table showing mechanical and physical 
properties of copper-tin 
alloys, 267-273 
melting points of tin-lead 

alloys, 286 
properties of brass as affected 
by its composition, 149 
of copper-zinc alloys, 193- 
197 
proportions of various metals 
incorporated in gold alloys 
used by jewelers', 430, 431 
results obtained by the addi- 
tion of vanadium to steel, 
401 
Talmi gold, 185, 186 
Tambago, 181 

Tam-tams, Chinese, 230, 231 
Taylor and "White special "quick 

speed " cutting steels, 396 
Teeth, amalgam for filling, 456 

Robertson's alloy for filling, 474 
Telegraph wire, silicon bronze, 251-254 
Telephone wire, silicon bronze, 251-254 
Telescope mirror at Birr Castle, Ireland, 

244 
Temperatures corresponding to different 

colors, 14 
Tempered lead, 475 

Tetmajer, experiments of, with alumin- 
ium-copper alloys, 96 
Thallium, 52 

Thowless' aluminium solder, 363 
Thurston, Prof. R. H., investigation 
by, of the strength of copper-tin 
alloys, 99, 100 
Tiers-argent, 405 
Tin, 45, 46 

addition of, to German silver, 311 
alloying power of, 46 
alloys, 284-305 

warm sepia-brown on, 525 
amalgam, 452 
-amalgams, specific gravities of, 

90, 91 
-bismuth alloys, specific gravities 

of, 83, 84 
bronze-like patina on, 525 
-cadmium alloys, specific gravities 

of, 83 
commercial, analyses of, 45 
detection of lead in, 508 
effect of, on brass, 148 
lead, 366 
-foil to distinguish from lead-foil, 

508 
-gold alloys, specific gravities of, 
86 



Tin group, 45-51 

-lead alloys. 284-286 

densities of, 284 
melting points of, 285, 

286 
specific gravities of, 85, 86 
melting point of, 107 
-mercury alloys, specific gravities 

of, 90, 91 
properties of, 45, 46 
recovery of, from tin-plate waste, 

531, 532 
-silver alloys, specific gravities of, 

84,85 
-spots, 243 
stains, 68 
-stone, 45 
testing of, 508 

unmanufactured, varieties of, 46 
use of, as a solder, 478 
warm sepia-brown tone on, 525 
Tinning, amalgam for, 454 
Tissier's metal, 186 

Titaniferous aluminium, behavior of, 49 
Titanium, 46-51 
-bronze, 48 

metallic, preparation of, 47 
Tobin bronze, 161, 162, 301 
Tombac, 181-190 
color of, 182 
composition of, 182 
derivation of the term, 181 
properties of, 181 
Tools, tempering of, 387 
Toucas's alloy, 318, 319 
Touchstone, 506, 507 
Toulouse, France, weight of large bell 

in, 227 
Tournay's metal, 183 
Tournu-Leonard's alloy, 420 
Tubes, tough brass for, 153, 154 
Tungsten, 42, 43 
group, 42-45 
-steel, 393-396 

analyses of, 395, 396 
fracture of, 395 
magnetic retentiveness of, 395 
tests of, 394, 395 
Type, alloys suitable for casting, 368 
manufacture of, 369 
metal, 367-370 
alloy for, 357 

UCHAT1US bronze, 225, 226 
experiments of, 98, 99 
United States, zinc in the, 38 
Uranium, 38 



INDEX. 



549 



T7ALVE-BALLS. bronze for, 239, 240 
V Vanadate, 400 
Vanadite, 43 
Vanadium, 43-4-5 

alloying power of, 44, 45 
-chrome steels, 402, 403 
discovery of, 396 
experiments showing influence of, 

on chrome, 403 
-nickel steel, 401, 402 
preparation of, 44 
properties of, 44 
results obtained by the addition of, 

to steel, 401 
-steel, 396-403 

bending tests of, 398, 399 
classes of, 401-403 
initial material for the prepara- 
tion of, 400 
tests of steel with and without, 
398 
Van der Ven, E., investigation by, of 

bronze for telephone lines, 253, 254 
Victor metal, 475 

Vienna, flux for hard soldering used in, 
489 
metallic cement, 451, 452 
weight of large bell in, 227 
Volborthite, 43 

WARNE'S metal, 420 
Waste metals, recovery of. 526-532 
Watch manufacturers, alloys for, 442, 

443 
Watches, palladium-bearing metal for, 

442 
Watts, invention of shot-towers by, 372 
Webster's bismuth bronze, 315 
Webster Crown Metal Co. , alloys made 

by, 354-356 
Weilei-'s alloys, 251 

West, Thomas D., on casting alumin- 
ium bronze, 346-349 
White brass, 190-193 
metal, 301 

metallo-graphic examination 
of, 295, 296 
metals, 294-305 

for bearings, 398 



White pig iron, 390 

solder, 481 
Wolfram, 43 
Wood's metal, 112, 380 
Wood-grain alloy, 418-420 
Wrought iron, 61 

YELLOW gold, 423 
metal, 156, 157 
solder, 481 

Zinc, 38-40 
affinity of, for lead, 366 
alloying power of, 40 
amalgam, 454 
black on, 523 
brands of, 150 
brassing of, 523 
bronzing liquids for, 517 
change in the molecular structure 

of, 145, 146 
coloring of, 522, 523 
-copper alloy, pure, strength of, 98 
alloys, elongations of, 101 

value for the tensile 
strength of, 97 
crystalline structure of, 145, 146 
effect of, on bronzes, 203 
on copper, 142, 143 
for voltaic cells, amalgamation of, 

454, 455 
gray, yellow, brown to black colors 

on, 523 
group, 38-42 
increase in the strength of copper 

by an addition of, 97 
-iron, 467 
ores, manufacture of brass with the 

use of, 163-165 
properties of, 39, 40 
separation of an alloy in refining. 
32,33 
lead from , 532 
solution of, in iron, 33 
testing for, 5U2 
-tin alloys, hardness of, 103 

liquation of, 69 
-white, 39 



CA-TAJLOQ-'CnES 

OF 

practical and Scientific Boo^ 

PUBLISHED BY 

Henry Carey Baird & Co. 



INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS. 

810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. 



•S" Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, free d? 
postage, to any address in the world, at the publication prices, 

*®" A Descriptive Catalogue, 90 pages, 8vo., will be sent free and free of postag% 
to any one in any part of the world, who will furnish his addressi 

t IW Where not otherwise stated, all of the Books in this Catalogue are bouttd 

in muslin. 



AMATEUR MECHANICS' WORKSHOP: 

A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula* 
tion of Wood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Brazing, 
Soldering and Carpentry. By the author of the " Lathe and Iti 
Uses." Seventh edition. Illustrated. 8vo. . . . $2»5« 

ANDES.— Animal Fats and Oils: 

Their Practical Production, Purification and Uses; their Properties, 
Falsification and Examination. 62 illustrations. 8vo. . 

ANDES.— Vegetable Fats and Oils: 

Their Practical Preparation, Purification and Employment; their 
Properties, Adulteration and Examination. 94 illustrations. 8vo. 

ARLOT. — A Complete Guide for Coach Painters : 

Translated from the French o r M. Arlot, Coach Painter, for 
eleven years Foreman of Paining to M. Eherler, Coach Maker, 
Paris. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. To which m 
added an Appendix, containing Informatics resoecting the Materials 
and the Practice of Coach and Car Painting w..d Varuishing in the 
United States and Great Britain i2mo. . . . $I>2$ 

(I) 



i HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

4RMENGAUD, AMOROUX, AND JOHNSON.— The Practi- 
cal Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design, and Ma- 
chinist's and Engineer's Drawing Companion : 

Forming a Complete Course of Mechanical Engineering and Archi 
tectural Drawing. From- the French of M, Annengaud the elder, 
Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and 
MM. Armengaud the younger, and Amcroux, Civil Engineers. Re- 
written and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from 
and examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism 
of the day. By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Illustrated 
by fifty folio steel plates, and fifty wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to . 

cloth. #600 

ARMSTRONG.— The Construction and Management of Steam 
Boilers : 
By R. Armstrong, C. E. With an Appendix by Robert Mallet, 
C. E., F. R. S. Seventh Edition. Illustrated. 1 vol. i2mo. .60 

ARROWSMITH.-The Paper-Hanger's Companion: 

Comprising Tools, Pastes, Preparatory Work ; Selection and Hanging 
of Wall- Papers ; Distemper Painting and Cornice-Tinting ; Stencil 
Work; Replacing Sash-Cord and Broken Window Panes; and 
Useful Wrinkles and Receipts, By James Arrowsmith. A New, 
Thoroughly Revised, and Much Enlarged Edition. Illustrated by 
25 engravings, 162 pages. (1905) .... $1.00 

\SHTON. — The Theory and Practice of the Art of Designing 
Fancy Cotton and Woollen Cloths from Sample : 

Giving full instructions for reducing drafts, as well as the methods of 
spooling and making out harness for cross drafts and finding any re- 
quired reed; with calculations and tables of yarn. By Frederic T. 
Ashton, Designer, West Pittsfield, Mass. With fifty-two illustrations. 
One vol. folio $5.00 

&SKINSON —Perfumes and their Preparation : 

A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing Complete 
Directions for Making Handkerchief Perfumes, Smelling-Salts. 
Sachets, Fumigating Pastils; Preparations for the Care of the Skin, 
the Mouth, the Hair; Cosmetics, Hair Dyes, and other Toilet 
Articles. By G. W. Askinson. Translated from the German by IsiDOK 
Furst. Revised by Charles Rice. 32 Illustrations. 8vo. $3.00 
BR<?NGNIART. — Coloring and Decoration of Ceramic Ware. 
Svc, . #2.50 

BAIRD. — The American Cotton Spinner, anc Manager's and 
Carder's Guide: 

A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning ; giving the Dimensions and 
Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist^ Calculations, etc. ; with 
notices of recent Improvements: together with Rules and Examples 
for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. 
Compiled from the paper; af the late Robert H. Bairu. i2mo. 

$i.S G 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



BAKER. — Long-Span Railway Bridges : 

Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and 
Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type 
Systems of Construction ; with numerous Formula and Tables. By 
B. Baker. i2mo #1.00 

BRAN NT.— A Practical Treatise on Distillation and Rec- 
tification of Alcohol : 
Comprising Raw Materials ; Production of Malt, Preparation of 
Mashes and of Yeast ; Fermentation ; Distillation and Rectification 
and Purification of Alcohol ; Preparation of Alcoholic Liquors, 
Liqueurs, Cordials, Bitters, Fruit Essences, Vinegar, etc. ; Examina- 
tion of Materials for the Preparation of Malt as well as of the Malt 
itself; Examination of Mashes before and after Fermentation ; Alco- 
holometry, with Numerous Comprehensive Tables ; and an Appendix 
on the Manufacture of Compressed Yeast and the Examination of 
Alcohol and Alcoholic Liquors for Fusel Oil and other Impurities. 
By William T. Brannt, Editor of " The Techno-Chemical Receipt 
Book." Second Edition. Entirely Rewritten. Illustrated by 105 
engravings. 460 pages, 8vo. (Dec. ,1903) . . . $4.00 

BAKR. — A Practical Treatise on the Combustion of Coal : 
Including descriptions of various mechanical devices for the Eco- 
nomic Generation of Heat by the Combustion of Fuel, whether solid, 
liquid or gaseous 8vo. . . . . . . . $2.50 

B ARR. — A Practical Treatise on High Pressure Steam Boilers: 
Including Results of Recent Experimental Tests of Boiler Materials, 
together with a description of Approved Safety Apparatus, Steam 
Pumps, Injectors and Economizers in actual use. By Wm. M. Barr. 
204 Illustrations. 8vo. ....... $3.00 

BAUERMAN. — A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron : 

Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of 
Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron 
and Steel, etc., etc. By H. Bauerman, F. G. S., Associate of the 
Royal School of Mines. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings from Drawings by J. B. 
Jordan. i2mo, $2.0© 

BRANNT.— The Metallic Alloys : A Practical Guide 

For the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amalgams, and Solders, 
used by Metal-Workers : together with their Chemical and Physical 
Properties and their Application in the Arts and the Industries ; with 
an Appendix on the Coloring of Alloys and the Recovery of Waste 
Metals. By William T. Brannt. 34 Engravings. A New, Re- 
vised, and Enlarged Edition. 554 pages. 8vo. . . $4.50 

BEANS. — A Treatise on Railway Curves and Location of 
Railroads : 
By E. W. Beans, C. E. Illustrated. i2mo. Tucks. . $1.50 



HENRV CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



BELL. — Carpentry Made Easy: 

Or, The Science and Art of Framing on a New and Improved 
System. With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Frames, Bam 
Frames, Mill Frames, Warehouses, Church Spires, etc. Comprising 
also a System of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and 
valuable Tables. Illustrated by forty-four plates, comprising nearly 
200 figures. By William E. Bell, Architect and Practical Builder. 
8vo. .......... $5.00 

BEMROSE— Fret-Cutting and Perforated Carving: 

With fifty-three practical illustrations. By W. Bemrose, Jr. i vol. 

quarto $2.50 

BEMROSE. — Manual of Buhl-work and Marquetry: 

With Practical Instructions for Learners, and ninety colored designs, 
By W. Bemrose, Jr. i vol. quarto • . . . . $3.00 
BEMROSE.— Manual of Wood Carving: 

With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, a.nd Original and 
Selected Designs. By William Bemrose, Jr. With an Intro- 
duction by Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 illustra- 
tions, 4to. S2.50 

BERSCH.- Cellulose, Cellulose Products, and Rubber Sub- 
stitutes : 
Comprising the Preparation of Cellulose, Parchment-Cellulose, 
Methods of Obtaining: Sugar, Alcohol and Oxalic Acid from Wood- 
Cellulose ; Production of Nitro-Cellulose and Cellulose Esters ; 
Manufacture of Artificial Silk, Viscose, Celluloid, Rubber Substi- 
tutes, Oil-Rubber, and Faktis. By Dr. Joseph Bersch. Trans- 
lated by William T. Brannt. 41 illustrations. (1904.) #3.00 
BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its History, Variety, Culture, Manufacture, Commerce, and Various 
Modes of Use. By E. R. Billings. Illustrated by nearly 200 
engravings. 8vo. . . . . . . . . . $3.00 

BIRD. — The American Practical Dyers' Companion: 

Comprising a Description of the Principal Dye- Stuffs and Chemicals 
used in Dyeing, their Natures and Uses ; Mordants and How Made ; 
with the best American, English, French and German processes for 
Bleaching and Dyeing Silk, Wool, Cotton, Linen, Flannel, Felt. 
Dress Goods, Mixed and Hosiery Yarns, Feathers, Grass, Felt, Fur, 
Wool, and Straw Hats, Jute Yarn, Vegetable Ivory, Mats, Skins, 
Furs, Leather, etc., etc. By Wood Aniline, and other Processes, 
together with Remarks on Finishing Agents, and instructions in the 
Finishing of Fabrics, Substitutes for Indigo, Water-Proofing of 
Materials, Tests and Purification of Water, Manufacture of Aniline 
and other New Dye Wares, Harmonizing Colors, etc., etc. ; embrac- 
ing in all over 800 Receipts for Colors and Shades, accompanied by 
170 Dyed Samples of Raw Materials and Fabrics. By F. J. Bird, 
Practical Dyer, Author of " The Dyers' Hand-Book." 8vo. $7.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE, 



BLINN.— A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet- 
Iron, and Copper-plate Workers: 

t 'mitaining Rules 'for describing various kinds of Patterns used by 
Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copper-plate Workers; Practical" Geometry; 
Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of 
Metals, Lead-pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Circumference! 
ni Circles; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., 
etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Mechanic. With One Hundred 
and Seventy Illustrations. 121110. ..... $2.50 

BOOTH. — Marble Worker's Manual: 

Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, theii 
Cutting, Working and Polishing; Veneering of Marble ; Mosaics; 
Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Sluccos, Cements, Receipts, 
Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. Booth. 
With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. l2mo., cloth $1.50 

BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vegetablf 

Fats and Oils : 
Comprising both Fixed and Volatile Oils, their Physical and Chem- 
ical Properties and Uses, the Manner of Extracting and Refining 
them, and Practical Rules for Testing them; as well as the Manufac- 
ture of Artificial Butter and Lubricants, etc., with lists of American 
Patents relating to the Extraction, Rendering, Refining, Decomposing, 
and Bleaching of Fats and Oils. By William T. Brannt, Editor 
of the " Techno-Chemical Receipt Book." Second Edition, Revised 
and in a great part Rewritten. Illustrated by 302 Engravings. In 
Two Volumes. 1304 pp. 8vo. ..... $10.00 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap 

and Candles : 
Based upon the most Recent Experiences in the Practice and Science; 
comprising the Chemistry, Raw Materials, Machinery, and Utensils 
and Various Processes of Manufacture, including a great variety of 
formulas. Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. C. Deite, A. 
Engelhardt, Dr. C. Schaedler and others; with additions and lists 
of American Patents relating to these subjects. By Wm. T. Brannt. 
Illustrated by 163 engravings. 677 pages. Svo. . . $10.00 

BRANNT —India Rubber, Gutta-Percha and Balata : 

Occurrence, Geographical Distribution, and Cultivation, Obtaining 
and Preparing the Raw Materials, Modes of Working and Utilizing 
them, Including Washing, Maceration, Mixing, Vulcanizing, Rubber 
and Gutta-Percha Compounds, Utilization of Waste, etc. By Will- 
iam T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. (1900.) . . $3.00 



HENRY CAREY KAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



BRANNT- WAHL- The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book: 

Containing several thousand Receipts covering the latest, most im. 
portant, and most useful discoveries in Chemical Technology, and 
their Practical Application in the Arts and the Industries. Edited 
chiefly from the German of Drs. Winckler, Eisner, Heintze, Mier- 
zinski, Jacobsen, Roller and Heinzerling, with additions by Wm. T. 
Brannt and Wm. H. Wahl, Ph. D. Illustrated by 78 engravings. 
l2mo. 495 pages. . . . . . . . #2.00 

BROWN. — Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements; 
Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam Engines, Mill and other 
Gearing, Presses, Horology, and Miscellaneous Machinery ; and in- 
cluding many movements never before published, and several of 
which have only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown. 
i2mo. ......... $1.00 

BUCKMASTER.— The Elements of Mechanical Physics: 
By J. C. Buckmaster. Illustrated with numerous engravings. 
l2mo. $1.00 

BULLOCK. — The American Cottage Builder : 
A Series of Designs, Plans and Specifications, from $200 to $20,000, 
for Homes for the People ; together with Warming, Ventilation, 
Drainage, Painting and Landscape Gardening. By John Bullock, 
Architect and Editor of " The Rudiments of Architecture and 
Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. 8vo. $2.50 

BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and Building : 
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, En- 
gineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, author of " The 
American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 25b Engravings. 8vo. $2.50 

8URGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modern 
Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. 
By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. i2mo. .... $1.50 

BYLES. — Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political 

Econ.my Examined. 

By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common 

Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by the 

Manchester Reciprocity Association. l2mo. . . . $1.25 

BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation 
to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes: 
Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, delivered at 
the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical 
College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. H. Bow- 
man, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 
8vo #7.50 

BYRNE.— Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi- 
neer : 
■■» Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive 
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing 
and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
gravings. 8vo. ........ #5.00 

3YRNE. — Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers: 

Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad 
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the Staking out of 
work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings : Embankments; Earth- 
work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book 
form $1.50 

LYRNE. — The Practical Metal-Worker's Assistant: 

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metalj 
and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; 
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal; 
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; 
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- 
workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to 
Manufacturing Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from 
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Piumier, Napier, 
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, 
revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con- 
taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By John PERCY, 
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and 
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every 
Branch of the Subject. 8vo #5-OQ 

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Navai 
Archkect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo., nearly 
600 pages . . (Scarce.) 

C\RTNET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE 1 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. 
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. 
Obiong, 8vo. ........ $1.50 

CALLINGHAM. — Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: 

A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James 
Callingham. To which are added Numerous Alphabets and the 
Art of Letter Painting Made Easy. By James C. Badenoch. 258 
pages. i2mo. v $i-5° 

CAMPIN.— A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: 
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work, 
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam- 
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron 
Ores. By Fpancis Campin, C. E. To which are added, Observations 
on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. Bv R. 
Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. (Scarce.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO. a CATALOGUE. 



CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. Wm. Elder. With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75 

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : 

Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer- 
cial. 8vo. . . $11.25 ' 

Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles 
of Social Science." By Kate McKean. i vol. i2mo. . $2.00 
Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. $io.oo ( 

Past, Present and Future. 8vo $2.50) 

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . . $7.50 
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign ; Why it Exists, and' 
How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo. . . . $2.00 

The Unity of Law : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. . . $2.50 

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working : 

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex' 
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse- 
power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the 
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- 
penses. By D. Kinnear Clark. Illustrated by over 200 wood 
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. I vol. 8vo. . $S-O0 

COLBURN. — The Locomotive Engine : 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its 
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- 
agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. i2mo. . $1.00 

COLLENS. — The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. 
By T. Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," " The Historj 
of Charity," etc. i2mo. Paper cover, $1.00 ; Cloth . $1.25 

COOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery : 
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articlei 
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulas. By Arnold J 
Cooley. i2mo $1.50 

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans- 
mission of Power. 
With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar- 
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten 
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- 
culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and 
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management o r 
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together with 
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and 
Wood Frictional Gearing ; on the Strength of Belting Leather ; and 
on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By 
John H. Cooper, M. E. 8vo $3.50 

CRAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and MUler. 
By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- 
gravings and two folding plates. 8vo. .... (Scarce.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 9 

CROSS. — The Cotton Yarn Spinner : 

Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Differeni 
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been 
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all 
our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo.' . 75 

CRISTIANI. — A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: 

With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris- 
TIANI, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- 
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. $15.00 

COURTNEY. — The Boiler Maker's Assistant in Drawing, 
Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work and Tank 
Work, etc. 
Revised by D. K. Clark. 102 ills. Fifth edition. . . 80 
COURTNEY.— The Boiler Maker's Ready Reckoner: 

With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating. Revised by 
D. K. Clark, C. E. 37 illustrations. Fifth edition. • $1.60 

DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- 
ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing: 
Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in 
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- 
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary 
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful 
Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, 
and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo. 

$2.00 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and 

Mining: 
By D. C. Da vies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 
76 Engravings. l2mo. ....... $5-°° 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: 

By D. C. Davies, F. G. S , Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, 
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological 
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the 
practice of all parts of the world. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised 
and much Enlarged by his son, E. Henry Davies. i2mo., 524 
pages . #5 >0 ° 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: 

Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., 
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding 
plates. J2mo. $1.20 

DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Brick, 

Tiles and Terra-Cotta : 

Including Stiff Clay, Dry Clay, Hand Made, Pressed or Front, and 

Roadway Paving Brick, Enamelled Brick, with Glazes and Colors, 

Fire Brick and Blocks, Silica Brick, Carbon Brick, Glass Pots, Re> 



IO HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGS. 

torts, Architectural Terra-Cotta, Sewer Pipe, Drain Tile, Glazed and 
Unglazed Roofing Tile, Art Tile, Mosaics, and Imitation of Intarsia 
or Inlaid Surfaces. Comprising every product of Clay employed in 
Architecture, Engineering, and the Blast Furnace. With a Detailed 
Description of the Different Clays employed, the Most Modern 
Machinery, Tools, and Kilns used, and the Processes for Handling, 
Disintegrating, Tempering, and Moulding the Clay into Shape, Dry- 
ing, Setting, and Burning. By Charles Thomas Davis. Third Edi- 
tion. Revised and in great part rewritten. Illustrated by 261 
engravings. 662 pages ....... $12.50 

DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- 
ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale: 
By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. 
DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Paper : 

Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, 
Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif- 
ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values, 
'.He Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli- 
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to 
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa- 
per, complete Lists of Paper- Making Materials, List of American 
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, 
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. 
Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, 8vo. $6.00 

DAVIS. — The Manufacture of Leather: 

Being a Description of all the Processes for the Tanning and Tawing 
with Bark, Extracts, Chrome and all Modern Tannages in General 
Use, and the Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of Every Kind of Leather; 
Including the Various Raw Materials, the Tools, Machines, and all 
Details of Importance Connected with an Intelligent and Profitable 
Prosecution of t tie Art, with Special Reference to the Best American 
Practice. To which are added Lists of American Patents ( 1884-1897) 
for Materials, Processes, Tools and Machines for Tanning, Currying, 
etc. By Charles Thomas Davis. Second Edition, Revised, and 
in great part Rewritten. Illustrated by 147 engravings and 14 Sam- 
ples of Quebracho Tanned and Aniline Dyed Leathers. 8vo, cloth, 

712 pages. Price $10.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the 

Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine 

Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, 

etc. : 

Based upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical 

Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive addition-. 

including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by 

William T. Brannt. 2d revised edition, 350 pages. (1905.) 

Price .......... $j.oo 

DE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide: 

being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all it= 
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Ste& 
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved principle 
nf Practical Geometry By SlMON De Graff, Architect (deuce. 1 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. rt 



DE KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical 
Analysis and Assaying : 
As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iroa, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. Db 
KONINCK, Dr. Sc, and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, hy 
Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American 
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A, 
Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . . #1.50 

UNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person of corm 
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the* aid of a teacher. 
By Andrew Duncan. Revised. 72 engravings, 214 pp. i2mo. $1.50 

DUPLAIS.— A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation 
of Alcoholic Liquors : 
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol 
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho 
del, Fruits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy, 
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro- 
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic 
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the 
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious 
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, 
etc» etc, Translated and Edited from the French of MM. DuPLAIS s 
By M. McKennie, M. D. Illustrated 743 pp. 8vo. $15.00 

DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on 
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now 
in evistence ; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for 
Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. i2mo. $1 00 

EIDHERR.— TheTechno-Chemical Guide to Distillation: 
A Rand-Book for the Manufacture of Alcohol and Alcoholic Liquors, 
including -the Preparation of Malt and Compressed Yeast. Edited 
from the German of Ed. Eidherr. 

EDWARDS.— A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, 
For the use of Engineers. Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical 
Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engraving--, including examples of 
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with 
much additional matter. 12 mo. 414 pages ... $2 Ofi 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines, 
Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory EDWARDS*, 
Illustrated i2mo $2.00 

EDWARDS.— The American Steam Engineer: 

Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latej: and most ap- 
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam 
Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler- 
w^kers, and engineering students. By Emory Edwards. Fully 
illustrated, 419 pages. i2mo. - $2.jO 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, and 

Screw Propellers, 

Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice ot 

the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the 

United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4to. $5.00 

EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide 

In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, 
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers. Injectors, 
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam 
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By 
Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. A20 pages. 
l2mo ^3 5<j 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Silver : 

A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixivktion 
of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of 
Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler. 124 Illustrations. 336 pp. 
i2mo $4.25 

ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political 
Economy. 
By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. ... . #2.50 

ELDER. — Questions of the Day, 

Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . $3.00 

ERNI AND BROWN.— Mineralogy Simplified. 

Easy Methods of Identifying Minerals, including Ores, by Means of 
the Blow-pipe, by Flame Reactions, by Humid Chemical Analysis, 
and by Physical Tests. By Henri Erni, A. M., M. D. Third Edi- 
tion, revised, re-arranged and with the addition of entirely new matter, 
including Tables for the Determination of Minerals by Chemical and 
Pyrognostic Characters, and by Physical Characters By Amos P. 
Brown, E. M., Ph. D. 350 pp., illustrated by 96 engravings, pocket- 
book form, full flexible morocco, gilt edges . . . $2.50 

FAIRBAIRN. The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery 
of Transmission : 
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportion of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag- 
ing and Disengaging Gear. By Sir William Fairbairn, Bart. 
C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one 
volume, i2mo. ........ $2.00 

FLEMING. — Narrow Gauge Railways in America : 

A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics 
as to Grades,' Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By 
Howard Fleming. Illustrated, 8vo $1.00 

FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and 
other Monuments : 
Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth, With an Introduction 
by Charles Boutell, M. A. 4to., cloth . . . #3.50 

FRIEDBERG. Utilization of Bones by Chemical Means; 
especially the Modes of Obtaining Fat, Glue, Manures^ 
Phosphorus and Phosphates. 
Illustrated. 8vo. (In preparation. ) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 13 



FRANKEL- HUTTER.- A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine: 

Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the 
Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other 
authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic 
School of Hanover. Edited by Robert Hutter, Chemist, Practical 
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover- 
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most 
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pj». $6.00 

GARDNER.— The Painter's Encyclopaedia : 
Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain 
and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, 
Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including 
Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering, 
Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By Franklin B. Gardner. 
158 Illustrations. l2mo. 427 pp. ..... $2.00 

GARDNER. — Everybody's Paint Book: 

A Complete Guide to the Art of ( Outdoor and Indoor Painting. 38 
illustrations. i2mo, 183 pp. ...... $1.00 

GEE. — The Jeweller's Assistant in the Art of Working in 
Gold: 
A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen. 121110. . $$.00 

GEE. — The Goldsmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, 
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- 
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of 
Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New 
System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful 
Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo. . #1.25 

GEE. — The Silversmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, 
including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal; its 
Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipula- 
tion; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing 
the Surface of the Work; together with other Useful Information and 
Memoranda. By George E. Gee. Illustrated. i2mo. Si. 25 

GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong $1-5° 

GRANT. — A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears : 

Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By George 
B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo. #1.00 

GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron : 

Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur- 
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling- 
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By William Henry Green- 
wood. F. C. S. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. l2mo. $1.75 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE: 



GREGORY. — Mathematics for Practical Men : 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates #3.00 

QRISWOLD. — Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for tin 
Field : 
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, 
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for En 
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the 
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En- 
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By 
W. Griswold. i2mo„ tucks #I-5o 

'GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena: 

By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines o5 
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines, 
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D. 
B. Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. 8vo. . . . $2.50 

Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmet and 
Mechanic : 
Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas. 
ure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by 
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land 
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on 
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables. 
32 mo., boards. 186 pages ...... .25 

HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton, 
and Linen, 
Including Bleaching an^ Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and 
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By 
E. C. HASERICK. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarm 
or Fabrics. 8vo. ........ $S-OU 

HATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter, 
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . $1.00 

HERMANN. — Painting on Glass and Porcelain, and Enamel 
Painting: 
A Complete Introduction to the Preparation of all the Colors and 
Fluxes Used for Painting on Glass, Porcelain, Enamel, Faience and 
Stoneware, the Color Pastes and Colored Glasses, together with a 
Minute Description ot the Firing of Colors and Enamels, on the 
Basis of Personal Practical Experience of the Art up to Date. l8 
illustrations. Second edition. ..... 

HAUPT. — Street Railway Motors: 
With Descriptions and Cost of Plants and Operation of the Various 
Systems now in Use. I2.v«' , .... #1-75 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 15 

HAUPT. — A Manual of Engineering Specifications and Con- 
tracts. 

By Lewis M. Haupt, C. E. Illustrated with numerous maps. 
328pp. 8vo J3 00 

HAUPT. — The Topographer, His Instruments and Methods. 
By Lewis M. Haupt, A. M., C. E. Illustrated with numerous 
plates, maps and engravings. 247 pp. 8vo. . . . $3.00 

HUGHES. — American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 

•■ By William Carter Hughes. i2mo. . . . v $1.50 

HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool- 
wich ; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst ; the Indian Civil En- 
gineering College, Cooper's Hill ; Indian Public Works and Tele- 
graph Departments ; Royal Marine Light Infantry; the Oxford and 
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. 
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 
examples. Small quartc ...... §x." 

EKVIS.— Railroad Property: 
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Managers, Offi 
cers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Civil Engineer of the 
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth #1.^0 

KEENE— A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: 
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla^ 
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House for 
■ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By James B. Keene, of H. M. 
Customs. 8vo. ........ $l,oa 

KELLEY. — Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and 
Financial Questions : 
By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . $2.50 

KELLOGG. — A New Monetary System : 
The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and 
Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions. 
By Edward Kellogg. 121110. Paper cover, $1.00. Bound in 
cloth #1.25 

KEMLO.— Watch- Repairer's Hand-Book : 
Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, 
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and 
other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. Kemlo, 
'Practical Watchmaker. With illustrations. i2mo. $1.25 



£6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



KENTISH.,— A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Log* 
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim. 
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thoma; 
Kentish. In one volume. i2mo. , . . . $i.0C 

KERL.- The Assayer's Manual: 

An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and 
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By Bruno Kerl, Professor 
in the Royal School of Mines. Translated from the German by 
William T. Brannt. Second American edition, edited with Ex- 
tensive Additions by F. Lynwood Garrison, Member of the 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. Illustrated by 87 en- 
gravings. 8vo. (Third Edition in preparation. ) 

KICK.—Flour Manufacture . 
A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frederick Kick 
Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the 
imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from 
the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H. 
P. Powles, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated 
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . $10.00 

KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the 
Alkali Trade : 
including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomas 
Vivr.7ETT. Consulting; Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. $2.50 

KIRK. — The Cupola Furnace : 

A Practical Treatise on the Construction and Management of Foundry 
Cupolas. By Edward KiRK, Practical Moulder and Melter, Con- 
sulting Expert in Melting. Illustrated by 78 engravings. Second 
Edition, revised and enlarged. 450 pages. 8vo. 1903. $3-S° 

CANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel : 
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin,Jr. From the French, by A. A. 
Fesquet. i2mo #2-5G 

LANGBEIN. — A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposi. 
tion of Metals : 
Comprising Electro-Plating and Galvanoplastic Operations, the De- 
position of Metals by the Contact and Immersion Processes, the Color- 
ing of Metals, the Methods of Grinding and Polishing, as well as 
Descriptions of the Electric Elements, Dynamo-Electric Machines, 
Thermo- Piles and of the Materials and Processes used in Every De- 
partment of the Art. From the German of Dr. George Langbein. 
with additions by Wm. T. Brannt. Fifth Edition, thoroughly revised 
and much enlarged. l70,Engravings. 694 pages 8vo. 1905. $4.00 

LARDNER.— The Steam-Engine : 

For the Use of Beginners. Illustrated. i2mo. ... .60 

LEHNER. — The Manufacture of Ink: 
Comprising the Raw Materials, and the Preparation df Waiting, 
Copying and Hektograph Inks, Safety Inks, Ink Extracts and Pow- 
ders, etc. Translated from the German of SlGMUND Lehner, with 
additions by William T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. S2-0& 



rfEJNRY CAREV BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 

LARKIN. — The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide: 

A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and 
their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improvements in tha 
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By 
James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department i« 
Rcany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. New edition, 
revised, with extensive additions. 414 pages. l2mo. . $2.$& 

LEROUX. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Worsteds} and Carded Yarns : 
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English 
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, 
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a 
Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which 
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of tha 
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee 
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woole« 
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni« 
versa! Exposition, 1867. 8vo. ..... $5.0© 

UEFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams : 
Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments 
And Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water 
Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings. 
8vo. ......... (Scarce.) 

LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: 

. Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 
Sixtieth thoasand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New 
Receipts. i2mo. ... #1-5° 

LE VAN. — The Steam Engine and the Indicator : 

Their Origin and Progressive Development ; including the Most 
Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Indi- 
cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By William 
Barnet Le Van. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indi- 
cator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo $2.00 

LIEBER.— Assayer's Guide : 
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all 
tfr principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins amd Alloys, and of 
Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. Revised. 283 pp. ramo. $1.50 

Lockwood's Dictionary of Terms : 
Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those 
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn- 
ing, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six 
Thousand Definitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author 
of " Pattern Making." 417 pp. i2mo. . . $}.-7S 



18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

LUKIN.— The Lathe and Its Uses : 

Or Instruction in the Art of Turning Wood and Metal. Including 
a Description of the Most Modern Appliances for the Ornamentation 
of Plane and Curved Surfaces, an Entirely Novul Form of Lathe 
for Eccentric and Rose-Engine Turning; A Lathe and Planing 
Machine Combined; and Other Valuable Matter Relating to the 
Art. Illustrated by 462 engravings. Seventh edition. 315 pages. 

8vo #425 

MAIN and BROWN. — Questions on Subjects Connected with 
the Marine Steam-Engine : 
And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By 
THOMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, 
and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. i2mo., cloth . $1.00 
MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: 
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS 
J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer 
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . 
MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. 
By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the 
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. 
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Navai 
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. 
MAKINS.— A Manual of Metallurgy: 

By George Hogarth Makins. 100 engravings. Second edition 
rewritten and much enlarged. l2mo., 592 pages 

MARTIN.— Screw- Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanic*) 

Engineers : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads 
of Screws of any Required Pitch; with a Table for Making the Uni- 
versal Gas- Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 
8vo -5° 

1/ICH ELL,.— Mine Drainage: 

Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under 
•Trcund Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large 
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and ihe 
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN 
Michell. Illustrated by 247 engravings. 8vo., 369 pages. #1250 

MOLESWORTH — Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and 
Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. 
By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil 
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- 
bound in Pocket-book form «■ $1.00 



HENRY CAREV RAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE *9 



MOORE. — The Universal Assistant and the Complete M* 
chanic ; 
Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipt^ 
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., 
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By 
R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. l2mo. . $2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks: 
By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numeroul 
Wocd-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten- 
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas. 
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyor^ 
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork. 
By Elwood Morris, C. E. 8vo. ..... $i-5« 

MAUCHLINE.- The Mine Foreman's Hand-Book 

t)l Practical an I Theoretical Information on the Opening, Venti- 
lating, and Working of Collieries. Questions and Answers on Prac- 
tical and Theoretical Coal Mining. Designed to Assist Students and 
Others in Passing Examinations for Mine Foremanships. By 
Robert Mauchline. 3d Edition. Thoroughly Revised and En- 
larged by F. Ernest Brackett. 134 engravings, 8vo. 378 pages. 
( J 9o5) - '. . . . $3.75 

NAPIER. — A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 
By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi- 
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, 
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix 0.1 Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus 
trated. 8vo. 422 pages ....... $3.00 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, ani Formulae, to> 
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, isiotehes 
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers : 
Third Edition, with Addi dons, consisting o! JNew Formulae for the 
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons ; general infor 
nation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Watei 
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. Bv Tohn Nevtixk. C. E. M R 
I. A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thicl 

I2mo #5.50 

1EWBERY- Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
style : 
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1S5 1 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of 100 
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. Bjf 
Robert Newbery. 410. .... . (Scarce.) 

NICHOLLS. -The Theoretical and Practical Boiler -Maker and 
Engineer's Reference Book: 
Containing a variety of Uselul Information for Employers of Labor. 
Foremen avl Wurkiuji Boiler-Makers Irei, Copper, and Tinsmith* 



2 o HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'is CATALOGUE. 



J>raughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for th« 
Use of Science Schools and Classes. By Samuel Nicholls. Ulu* 
trated by sixteen plates, i2mo. ..... $2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : 

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, 
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and 
Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. i2mo., cloth #2.25, 

NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder: 

A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail- 
way Construction and Equipment. By WILLIAM J. NlCOLLS, Civil 
Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket-book form . $2.00 

NORMANDY. — The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An- 
alysis : 
Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic 01 
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, 
and in the Arts. By A. Normandy. New Edition, Enlarged, and 
to a great extent rewritten. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
thick i2mo Scarce 

NORRIS.— A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma- 
chinists: 
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
etc., etc. By Septimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated, 
l2mo JM.5C 

NYSTRGM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : 
Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms 1 
accompanied with an Appendix on. Duodenal Arithmetic and Me 
trology. By John W. Nystrom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. 

NYSTROM. — On Technological Education and the Construe- 
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, lah 
Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi 
tional matter. Illustnued by seven engravings, izmo. . $1. 

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: 1 
Containing a brief account of all fhe Substances and Processes], C 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practte 
Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Anal)" 
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and 
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calid 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1S67 8vo., 
491 pages . . $3.00 

ORTON. — Underground Treasures-. 
• How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination 
rf ail the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James 
ORTON, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, 
N. Y ; author of the "Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edi- 
tion, with An Appendix on Ore Deposits and Testing Minerals (1901). 
Illustrated #1.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21 

QSBORN.— The Prospector's Field Book and Guide. 

In, the Search For and the Easy Determination of Ores and Other 

Useful Minerals. By Prof. H. S. Osborn, LL. D. Illustrated by 66 

, Engravings. Sixth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. 360 pages, 

i2mo. (Dec, 1903) ........ $1.50 

DSBORN — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min 
ing: 
Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- 
rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals ; their ^Methods ■ of 
Chemical Analysis and Assay; together with Various Systems of Ex- 
cavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driving, 
Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. Osborn, 
LL. D., Author of " The Prospector's Field- Book and Guide." 171 
engravings. Second Edition, revised; 8vo. . . .- $4-50 

OVERMAN— The Manufacture of Steel : 
Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in- Steel and Iron, Wagon 
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
Ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By 
Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
facture of Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By 
A. A. Fesqwt, Chemist and Engineer. !2mo. . . $1.50 
OVERMAN. — The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, 
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow- 
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds 
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals ; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and 
Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, 
etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to 
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, 
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chen> 
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. l2mo. . $2.00 
PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 
Comprising the Manufacture and Test of Pigments, the Arts of Paint- 
ing, Graining, Marbling, Staining, Sign- writing, Varnishing, Glass- 
staining, and Gilding on Glass ; together with Coach Painting and 
Varnishing, and the Principles of the Harmony and Contrast of 
Colors. Twenty-seventh Edition. Revised, Enlarged, and in great 
part Rewritten. By William T. Brannt, Editor of " Varnishes, 
Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing Waxes." Illustrated. 395 pp. 

i2mo. . . . , $i-50 

PALLETT. — The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . £2.00 



*2 HENRY CAREY BATRD & OVS CATALOGUE. 

PERCY. — The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 

Bv John Percy, M. D., F. R. S. Paper. . . . 25 eta. 
PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation: 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. Illustrated. I2mo. $1.25 
PERKINS AND STOWE.-A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
and Boiler Plate Roller : 
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Pilei 
to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of 
Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge 
in decimals ; the Weight per foct, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per 
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of 
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. 

$1.50 
POSSELT. — Recent Improvements in Textile Machinery Re- 
lating to Weaving : 
Giving the Most Modern Points on the Construction of all Kinds 
of Looms, Warpers, Beamers, Slashers, Winders, Spoolers, Reeds, 
Temples, Shuttles, Bobbins, Heddles, Heddle Frames, Pickers, 
Jacquards, Card Stampers, etc., etc. 600 illus. . . $3 00 

POSSELT.— Technology of Textile Design: 
The Most Complete Treatise on the Construction and Application 
of Weaves for all Textile Fabrics and the Analysis of Cloth. By E. 

A. Posselt. 1,500 illustrations. 4to $500 

POSSELT.— Textile Calculations: 

A Guide to Calculations Relating to the Manufacture of all Kinds 
of Yarns and Fabrics, the Analysis of Cloth, Speed, Power and Belt 
Calculations. By E. A. POSSELT. Illustrated. 4to. . #2.00 
REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry: 
By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest 
Betton, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and 
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com- 
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . $6.00 
RICHARDS.— Aluminium : 

Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, 
including its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Chemist and 
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- 
schaft. Illust. Third edition, enlarged and revised (1895) . #6.00 
RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : 
Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the 
Treatment of the Raw Materials; the best Formulae and the Newest 
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and 
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use; Dryers; the 
Testing, Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. 
Rifkaitlt, Vergnaud, and Toussaint. Revised and Edited by M. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. *3 

F. Malepeyre. Tranuated from the French, by A. A. Fesqu*^ 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings,. In one 
vol., 8vo., 659 pages . . . . . $ 5.00 

ROPER. — Catechism for Steam Engineers and Electricians: 
Including the Construction and Management of Steam Engines, 
Steam Boilers and Electric Plants. By Stephen Roper. Twenty' 
first edition, rewritten and greatly enlarged by E. R. Keller and 
C. W. Pike. 365 pages. Illustrations. i8mo., tucks, gilt. #2.00 
ROPER.— Engineer's Handy Book: v 

Containing Facts, Formulae, Tables and Questions on Power, its 
Generation, Transmission and Measurement; Heat, Fuel, and Steam; 
The Steam Boiler and Accessories ; Steam Engines and their Parts ; 
Steam Engine Indicator; Gas and Gasoline Engines; Materials; 
their Properties and Strength; Together with a Discussion of the Fun- 
damental Experiments in Electricity, and an Explanation of Dynamos, 
Motors, Batteries, etc., and Rules for Calculating Sizes of Wires. By 
Stephen Roper. 15th edition. Revised and enlarged by E. R. 
Keller, M. E. and C. W. Pike, B. S. (1899), with numerous illus- 

trations. Pocket-book form. Leather &j.50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management 
of Lan^ and Marine Engines and Boilers. With illustrations. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo.,h'cks, gilt edge. 

ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 3 ' 5 ° 

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- 
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By Stephen 
Roper. Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . $2.50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 
With illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Fourth edition, 
i2mo., tucks, gilt edge #3-50 

ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers. 
This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or 
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Third edition . . . # 2 .oo 

ROPER. — Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eighth edition, with illustrations. 
i8mo., tucks, gilt edge « 2 00 

ROSE.— The Complete Practical Machinist: 

Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and 
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools 
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, Machine Tools, etc. By JOSHUA 
Rose. 395 Engravings. Nineteenth Edition, greatlv Enlarged with 
New and Valuable Matter. i2mo., 504 pages. '. . #2.50 

ROSE. — Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught : 

Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing 
T nstruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw- 



24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary 
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical 
Motions, Engines and Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 330 engravings. 8 vo, 313 pages .... $4.00 

ROSE. — The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: 

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of th> 
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat- 
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care- 
fully selected from the jnost recent and successful practice. By 
Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $i.oa 

ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: 

Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.- 
Colonel W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. 

i2mo. . $2.00 

SHAW. — Civil Architecture : 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con- 
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, 
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. 
By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. 
'The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. 
Eleventh edition. 4to. $6.00 

SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- 
tion, for Young Engineers. 

By W. F. Shunk, C. E. 121110. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00 

SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 

By J. W. Slater. i2mo $3-oo 

SLOAN. — American Houses : 

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect. 8vo. ...... .75 

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture: 

Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with 
Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc., 
etc. JUustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel Sloan, 
Architect. 8vo. ..-,.... $2.50 

SLOANE. — Ho.re Experiments in Science. 

By T. O'Conor Slc\ne, E. M., A. M., Ft. D. Illustrated by 91 

engravings. i2tno. ........ $1.00 

SMEATON- Builder's Pockti-Companion : 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; 

with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. 

By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. l2mo. 
SMITH.— A Manual of Political Economy. 

By E. Peshine Smith. A New Edition, to which is added a full 

Index. i2mo. . $>£ 25 



HENRY CAREY IsaIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25 

SMITH— Parks and Pleasure -Grounds : 

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and 
Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and 
Garden Architect, etc., etc. l2mo. .'.,..._. $2.ot» 

SMITH.— The Dyer's Instructor: 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton* 
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 8ocn 
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; ancjj 
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs', and the} 
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such workj 
By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2ino. . . . $i-$ol 

SMYTH.— A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S.i 
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With numer- 
ous illustrations. l2mo. ...... $5. 40 

SNIVELY. — Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anal- 
ysis. 
By John H. Snively, Phr". D. 8vo $1.00 

SNIVELY. — The Elements of Systematic Qualitative chemical 
Analysis : 
A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. i6mo. 

$2.00 

STOKES. — The Cabinet- Maker and Upholsterer's Companion: 

Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work; 
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-Work ; the Art of Dyeing and Stain 
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker- 
ing, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish, Glues. 
Cements, and Compos', ns; with numerous Receipts, useful to work 
men generally. Bv Stokes. Illustrated. A -New Edition, with 
an Appendix upor .ench Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing, 
etc., etc. i2mo #1.25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS'. 
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing 
Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officer? 
of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. By authority of the Secre- 
tary of War. Illustrated by 25 large bteel plates. Quarto . $5.00 

SULLIVAN. — Protection to Native Industry. 
By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on 
Social Reforms." 8vo. ........ $1.00 

SHERRATT.— The Elements of Hand-Railing: 

Simplified and Explained in Concise Problems that are Easily Under- 
stood. The whole illustrated with Thirty-eight Accurate and Origi- 
nal Plates, Founded on Geometrical Principles, and Showing how to 
Make Rail Without Centre Joints, Making Better Rail of the Same 
Material, with Half the labor, and Showing How to Lay Out Stairs 
of all Kinds. By R. J. Sherratt. Folio. . . . #2.50 



26 HENRY CAREY BAIRr? & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

6YME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science 

By David Syme. i2mo. . . ... £2.0* 

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, 
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., 
By Measurement. Cloth ...... 63 

THALLNER.— Tool-Steel : 

A Concise Handbook on Tool-Steel in General. Its Treatment^ in 
the Operations of Forging, Annealing, Hardening, Tempering, etc., 
and the Appliances Therefor. By Otto Thallner, Manager in 
Chief of the Tool-Steel Works, Bismarckhutte, Germany. From the 
German by William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 69 engravings. 
194 pages. 8vo. 1902. ...... $2.00 

TEMPLETON. — The Practical Examinator on Steam and thd 

Steam -Engine: 

With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 

Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, En. 

gineer. i2mo. $1.00 

THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: 
With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- 
orated from personal experience by Julius E. Thausing, Professor 
at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, 
near Vienna. Translated from the German by WILLIAM T. BRANNT, 
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and 
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. ScHWARZ 
and Dr. A. H. Bauer. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 815 
pages '- $10.00 

THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
to the Industrial History of Nations : 
By Robert E. Thompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the 
University of Pennsylvania. i2mo. .... $1.50 

THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent. 24010. . . #1.25 

TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn, 
ing; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and 
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and 
Circular Rest ; with Patterns and Instructions for working them, 
I2mo $1.00 

TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the 

Hand or Foot- Lathe : 

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 

Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 

4to (Scarce.) 



HEKRY CAREY BA1RB & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



VAILE. — Galvanized- Iron Cornice-Woiker's Manual: 

Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and 
Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, 
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other 
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. 

Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to (Scarce.) 

VILLE. — On Artificial Manures : 

Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes, 
during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. Georges Ville. Translated and 
Edited by William Crookes, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one 

engravings. 8vo., 450 pages #6.00 

VILLE.— The School of Chemical Manures : 
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From 
the French of M. Geo. Ville, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- 
gineer. With Illustrations. i2mo. .... $1.2$ 
VOGDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket- Companion 
and Price- Book : 
Consisting of a Shoit but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- 
decimals, Geometry and Mensuration ; with Tables of United States 
Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, 
Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes 
and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete 
Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting; also, Rules for 
Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint- 
ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By 
Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised, 
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book 

form, gilt edges $2.00 

Cloth . . ....... I.5« 

VAN CLEVE. — The English and American Mechanic: 
Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, 
and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac- 
turer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo. $2.00 
VAN DER BURG.— School of Painting for the Imitation of 
Woods and Marbles : 
A Complete, Practical Treatise on the Art and Craft of Graining and 
Marbling with the Tools and Appliances. 36 plates. Folio, 12x20 

inches #10.00 

WAHNSCHAFFE.— A Guide to the Scientific Examination 
of Soils : 
Comprising Select Methods of Mechanical and Chemical Analysis 
and Physical Investigation. Translated from the German of Dr. F. 
Wahnschaffe. With additions by William T. Brannt. Illus- 
trated by 25 engravings. 121110. 177 pages . . . #1.58 
WALTON. — Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated: 
By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 large 
and elaborate Plates, after Actual Workings and Apparatus. j|i55-oC 



2 ' UEN.RY CAREY BAIRD & CO.S CATALOCU& 

WARE.— The Sugar Beet. 

Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varietie 
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing, 
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva 
tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewis 
S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. 

WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: 

For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- 
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple 
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different 
branches of the above Trades. By Reuben H. Warn, Practical 
Tin- Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing 
Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, 
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and 
Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- 
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . $3-00 

WARNER.— New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for thft 
Computation of Earth-work : 
Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, 
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes. 
sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Prac- 
tical Treatise; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Appendix, 
Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana 
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables and Diagram^, and 3 
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights 
By John Warner, A. M., Mining and Mechanical Engineer lllus- 
f - ated by 14 Plates 8vo. . . . . . . $3.00 

WILSON. — Carpentry and Joinery : 

By John Wilson, Lecturer on Building Construction, Carpentry and 
Joinery, etc., in the Manchester Technical School. Third Edition, 
with 65 full-page plates, in flexible cover, oblong. . . (Scarce.) 

WATSON— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe : 

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds, 
Ivory, Bone, and Precious Woods ; Dyeing, Coloring, and French 
Polishing ; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to 
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By 
Egbert P. Watson, Author of "The Modern Practice of American 
Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. $1.50 

WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists 
and Engineers : 

Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe 
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally, with 
the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by 
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the floor. Togethei 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. i 9 

with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam 
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson. 
Illustrated by v eighty-six engravings. l2mo. . . . #2.50 

WATT.— The Art of Soap Making : 

A Practical Hand-Book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
Toilet Soaps, etc. Fifth Edition, Revised, to which is added an 
Appendix on Modern Candle Making. By Alexander Watt. 
111. l2mo. . . . . . . ■ . . . ^ $3.00 

WEATHERLY.- Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods, 
And other processes for Confectionery, including Methods for Manu- 
facturing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods. A 
New and Enlarged Edition, with an Appendix on Cocoa, Chocolate, 
Chocolate Confections, etc. 196 pages, 1 2mo. (1903) . $1.50 

WILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis : 

With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro- 
fessor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American, 
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. Himes, 
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, 
Pa. 8vo. $1.50 

WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation and Explo- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. 

#2.50 

WILSON. — First Principles of Political Economy: 

With Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization. 
By Professor W. D. Wilson, of the Cornell University. A new and 
revised edition. T2mo. ....... $1-50 

WILSON. — The Practical Tool-Maker and Designer: 

A Treatise upon the Designing of Tools and Fixtures for Machine 
Tools and Metal Working Machinery, Comprising Modern Examples 
of Machines with Fundamental Designs for Tools for the Actual Pro- 
duction of the work; Together with Special Reference to a Set of 
Tools for Machining the Various Parts of a Bicycle. Illustrated by 
189 engravings. 1898. ...... $2.50 

CONTENTS: Introductory. Chapter I. Modern Tool Room and Equipment. 
II. Files, Their Use and Abuse. III. Steel and Tempering:. IV. Making Jigs. 
V. Milling Machine Fixtures. VI. Tools and Fixtures for Screw Machines. VII. 
Broaching. VIII. Punches and Dies for Cutting and Drop Press. IX. Tools for 
Hollow-Ware. X. Embossing: Metal, Coin, and Stamped Sheet-Metal Orna- 
ments. XI. Drop Forging. XII. Solid Drawn Shells or Ferrules ; Cupping- or 
Cutting-, and Drawing ; Breaking Down Shells. XIII. Annealing, Pickling, and 
Cleaning-, XIV. Tools for Draw Bench. XV. Cutting and Assembling Pieces 
by Means of Ratchet Dial Plates at One Operation. XVI. The Header. XVII. 
Tools for Fox Lathe. XVIII. Suggestions for a Set of Tools for Machining- the 
Various Parts of a Bicycle. XIX. The Plater's Dynamo. XX. Conclusion— 
With a Few Random Ideas. Appendix. Index. 

WOODS. — Compound Locomotives : 

By Arthur Tannatt Woods. Second edition, revised and enlarged 
by David Leonard Barnes, A. M., C. E. 8vo. 330 pp. #3.00 



30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WOHLER.-A Hand-Bookof Mineral Analysis: 

By F. Wohler, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gdttin- 
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry in the 
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. 
i2mo. $2.50 

WORSSAM. — On Mechanical Saws: 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W. 
Worssam, Jr. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. $i-5° 



RECENT ADDITIONS. 

BRANNT. — Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing - 
Waxes : 

Their Raw Materials and their Manufacture, to which is added the 
Art of Varnishing and Lacquering, including the Preparation of Put- 
ties and of Stains for Wood, Ivory, Bone, Horn, and Leather. By 
William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 39 Engravings, 338 pages. 

i2mo #3.00 

BRANNT — The Practical Scourer and Garment Dyer: 

Comprising Dry or Chemical Cleaning ; the Art of Removing Stains ; 
Fine Washing; Bleaching and Dyeing o f Straw Hats, Gloves, and 
Feathers of all kinds; Dyeing of Worn Clothes of all fabrics, in- 
cluding Mixed Goods, by One Dip; and the Manufacture of Soaps 
and Fluids for Cleansing Purposes. Edited by William T. Brannt, 
Editor of "The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book." Illustrated. 
203 pages. i2mo. .... . \ . $2.00 

BRANNT.— Petroleum . 

its History, Origin, Occurrence, Production, Physical and Chemical 
Constitution, Technology, Examination and Uses; Together with 
the Occurrence and Uses of Natural Gas. Edited chiefly from the 
German of Prof. Hans Hoefer and Dr. Alexander Veith, by Wm. 
T. Brannt. Illustrated by 3 Plates and 284 Engravings. 743 pp. 
8vo. #7.50 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine- 
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit-Wines : 
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation ; 
Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, 
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T. 
Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5-°° 

BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts 
and Processes : 

Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula- 
tions for the working of all Metals ; including the Decoration and 
Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their 
Preservation. Edited from various sources. By William T. 
Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. $2.50 



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